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AGRICULTURE 


FOR 


YOUNG  FOLKS 


PREPARED  ESPECIALLY  FOR  TEACHING 
ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


BY 


A.  D.  WILSON 

SUPERINTENDENT    OF    FARMER^     INSTITUTES    AND    AGRICULTURAL 
EXTENSION,    UNIVERSITY    OF    MINNESOTA. 

AND 

E.  W.  WILSON 


ILLUSTRATED 


6^- 


^^\^ 


Copyright  1910, 

By 

Webb  Publishing  Comp*.ny 


PREFACE. 


TTiis  book  has  been  prepared  primarily  for  use  in  rural 
schools.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  it  a  complete 
treatise  on  elementary  agriculture.  "Agriculture  must  for  some 
time  to  come  be  taught  in  the  small  one-room  rural  school.  We 
have  felt,  however,  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  a  system- 
atic course  in  agriculture  in  such  schools,  but  rather  to  study  the 
plain  problems  of  the  farm  and  home,  as  encountered  in  the 
daily  life  of  the  pupils.  These  problems  must,  of  necessity,  vary 
in  the  different  localities.  A  course  well  suited  to  one  locality 
may  not  be  suited  to  another  locality,  because  it  does  not  deal 
directly  with  the  things  with  which  the  pupils  are  working  and 
with  which  they  are  consequently  familiar. 

The  book  deals  largely  with  common  farm  practices,  rather 
than  with  scientific  principles.  It  is  intended  to  throw  some 
light  upon  and  add  interest  to  the  things  that  are  done  on  the 
farm  from  day  to  day.  We  feel  that  if  pupils  can  be  interested 
and  enabled  to  use  the  farms  and  the  farm  homes  as  labora- 
tories in  which  to  observe  and  apply  the  things  learned  at 
school,  a  great  step  will  have  been  made  toward  bringing  the 
school  In  close  touch  with  the  home  life  of  the  pupils. 

A  study  of  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools  elevates,  in  the 
minds  of  the  farm  youth,  the  calling  of  agriculture.  A  rather 
close  study  of  a  few  farm  problems  impresses  one  with  the  great 
amount  of  knowledge  and  skill  required  to  successfully  operate 
a  farm;  and  must  convince  one  that  a  farm,  rightly  managed, 
affords  as  much  opportunity  for  development  as  does  a  profes- 
sional or  business  career. 

We  do  not  propose  that  the  topics  shall  necessarily  be  taken  up 
in  the  order  presented,  but  suggest  that  each  teacher  begin  with 
that  portion  of  the  book  dealing  with  the  particular  phase  of 
farm  work  that  is  being  done  on  the  home  farms  of  the  pupils 
at  the  time  the  lesson  is  given. 


)34079 


Each  section  is  a  complete  reading  lesson,  followed  by  ques- 
tions and  examples.  Both  the  questions  and  the  examples  relate 
to  the  reading  lesson.  The  questions  may  be  answered  orally  or 
in  the  form  of  a  language  paper.  The  examples  will  show  in  a 
forceful  way  some  of  the  main  facts  presented  in  the  reading 
lesson.  TTiis  manner  of  presenting  the  various  subjects  was 
chosen  so  that  the  study  of  agriculture  might  replace  a  part  of 
the  reading,  language  and  arithmetic  lessons,  and  thus  allow  a 
study  of  agriculture  without  shortening  the  time  of,  or  crowding 
out,  any  other  subject. 

Many  of  the  complex  problems  encountered  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  farm  are  discussed  here  with  a  view  to  simplifying 
them,  so  that  any  one  may  easily  understand  the  principles 
involved.  It  may  even  prove  valuable  to  farm  managers,  by 
enabling  them  to  put  into  practice  some  of  the  better  methods 
of  soil  and  live  stock  management,  and  to  clearly  see  the  aspects 
of  farming  as  a  business. 

The  idea  of  preparing  these  lessons  was  suggested  by  Mr. 
D.  A.  Wallace,  editor  of  The  Farmer,  and  we  gratefully  acknowl- 
edge his  suggestions. 

We  have  freely  used  many  of  the  agricultural  books  and  bulle- 
tins in  the  library  at  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  College,  and 
have  obtained  much  valuable  information  therefrom. 

Nearly  all  photographs  used  were  made  by  Mr.  H.  D.  Ayer, 
and  the  drawings  were  made  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Welch  and  Mr.  G.  F. 
Krogh. 

A.  D.  WILSON, 
E.  W.  WILSON, 

University  Farm,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  July,  1910. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 
plant  Food. — Sources  of  Plant  Food.     Available  Plant  Food. 
Seed     Requirements.     Reasons     for     Tillage.     The     Seed     Bed. 
Planting. 

CHAPTER  II. 
Tillage. — Objects  of  Plowing.     Time  to   Plow.     Tlie  Art  of 
Plowing.     A  Plowing  Contest. 

CHAPTER  III. 
Farm   Seeds. — Good  Seed.     Selection  of  Good   Seed.     Weed 
Seeds  Common  in  Grain.     Weed   Seeds  Common  in  Grass  and 
Clover  Seed. 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Common    Weeds    and    Their    Eradication. — Weeds.      Annual 
Weeds.     More   Annual   Weeds.     Eradication   of  Annual  Weeds. 
Biennial    Weeds.     Perennial     Weeds.     More     About     Perennial 
Weeds.     Eradication  of  Perennial  Weeds. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Corn. — General  Features  of  the  Corn  Crop.  Shapes  of 
Kernels  of  Corn.  Sizes  of  Kernels  of  Corn.  Parts  of  a  Kernel 
of  Corn.  Testing  Seed  Corn  for  Germination.  Corn  Culture. 
Reasons  for  the  Cultivation  of  Corn.  Methods  of  Cultivating 
Corn.  Selection  of  Seed  Corn.  How  to  Select  Seed  Corn.  Stor- 
ing  Seed  Corn.     Methods  of  Storing  Seed  Corn. 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Potatoes. — The  Potato  Crop.     Potatoes  for  Seed  and  Cooking. 
Preparations  for  a  Potato  Crop.     Planting  Potatoes. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
The  Hay  Crop. — Importance  of  the  Hay  Crop.     Clover.     Clo- 
ver Roots  and  Bacteria.     Curing  Hay. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Farm  Management. — The  Standing  of  the  Farmer.  Rotation 
of  Crops.  Classification  of  Field  Crops.  How  Plant  Food  is 
Made  Available.  Rotation  Maintains  Vegetable  Matter.  Plan- 
ning Farms.  Arrangement  of  Fields.  Practical  Rotation.  A 
F'ive  Year  Rotation.  Farm  Accounts.  Live  Stock  Accounts. 
An  Account  With  a  Cow.  Marketing  Dairy  Products.  Co-opera- 
tion in  Marketing.     Fencing.     Building  Fences. 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Live  Stock. — Care  of  Live  Stock.  Shelter  for  Live  Stock. 
Testing  Milk.  Testing  Cows.  Possibilities  of  the  Dairy  Cow. 
Feeding  Animals.  Composition  of  Feeds.  Feed  Requirements  of 
Dairy  Cows.  To  Compound  a  Ration.  Succulent  Food  for  Dairy 
Cows.  Rations  Containing  Succulent  Food.  Horse  Labor. 
F'eeding  Horses.  Feeding  Horses  When  Idle.  Sheep.  Feeding 
Sheep.  Swine.  The  Brood  Sow.  Care  of  Growing  Pigs.  Fat- 
tening Hogs  Economically. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Poultry. — Poultry  on  the  Farm.  Care  of  Poultry.  Poultry 
House.  One  Type  of  Poultry  House.  Eggs.  Care  of  Hens  in 
Winter.     Feeding  Laying  Hens. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

The  Farm  Home What  a  Desirable  Home  Should  Be.    Wind 

Breaks.     Sanitation.     Sanitation    Applied    to    Household   Duties. 
Ventilation.     Physics  of  Ventilation.     A  Garden.     Plan  of  Garden. 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Fruit  on  the  Farm. — Value  of  Fruit  in  the  Diet.    Strawberries. 
Raspberries.     Currants    and    Gooseberries.     Apples.     Preserving 
Fruit. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Country  Roads. — The  Road  Problem.    Systems  of  Doing  Road 
Work.     Road  Construction.     Maintenance  of  Roads. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Co-operation. — Co-operation  in  Marketing  Butter.     Marketing 
Eggs. 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOtlNCiKOLKS 


CHAPTER  I. 
PLANT  FOOD. 

SOURCES  OF   PLANT   FOOD. 

Plant  Food  in  the  Air. — Plants  as  well  as  animals  must 
have  food;  and  it  is  as  important  to  know  what  plants 
need  and  how  to  supply  their  needs  as  it  is  to  know  how 
to  properly  feed  animals. 

It  may  be  a  surprise  to  many  to  know  that  the  greater 
portion  of  the  plant  food  comes  from  the  air  rather  than 
from  the  soil.  All  those  substances  in  a  plant  called  carbo- 
hydrates, as  starch,  sugar  and  fibrous  tissue,  are  made  en- 
tirely from  carbon  dioxide  gas  and  water.  The  plant 
takes  in  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air,  through  its  leaves, 
and  water  from  the  soil,  through  its  roots.  When  the  wa- 
ter and  the  carbon  dioxide  are  brought  together  in  the 
leaves  of  the  plant,  and  the  sun  shines  on  the  leaves,  the 
sun  and  the  green  coloring  matter  (the  chlorophyll)  in 
the  leaves  cause  the  water  and  the  carbon  dioxide  to 
unite.  The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  water  unite  with 
the  carbon  in  the  carbon  dioxide.  These  three  elements 
form  starch.  The  oxygen  in  the  carbon  dioxide  is  liberat- 
ed and  given  off  to  the  air.  In  this  way  plants  purify 
the  air  for  animals  to  breathe  and  animals  exhale  air  con- 
taining carbon  dioxide,  which  furnishes  food  for  plants. 
Some  of  the  starch  formed  in  a  plant  is  slightly  modified 
during  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  forms  fibrous  tissue 
and  sugar.  Examine  kernels  of  wheat  and  corn  and  a 
potato  to  see  what  a  very  large  part  is  starch.  The  white 
part  of  all  of  them  is  very  largely  starch.  It  is  seen 
from  the  above  that  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  our 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


c^ifJinon  .plants  does  not  come  from  the  ground  as  is 
ii^liajllj.  siipposed,  but  is  formed  from  the  poisonous  gas, 
xJar,toi3;  didxivie,  from  the  air,  and  water  from  the  soil. 

Plant  Food  in  the  Soil. — ^A  small  portion  of  every  plant 
comes  from  the  plant  food  in  the  soil.  A  fairly  good  idea 
of  the  proportion  of  any  plant  that  is  taken  from  the  soil 
is  obtained  by  burning  the  plant.  The  ashes  remaining 
represent  nearly  the  whole  amount  that  came  from  the 
soil.  This  portion,  though  small,  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  plant  growth. 
One  may  liken  the  plant  food  taken 
from  the  soil  to  salt  eaten  by  animals. 
It  furnishes  a  very  small  part  of  the 
food  required,  but  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. Hence  the  importance  of  having 
a  fertile  soil  tha,t  will  furnish  these  sub- 
stances as'  they  are  needed  by  the 
growing  crop. 

Plants  are  able  to  get  food  from  the 
soil  only  when  it  is  in  a  soluble  form — 
that  is,  when  the  plant  food  will  dis- 
solve in  water  as  sugar  dissolves  in  tea. 
Soluble  Plant  Food. — ^When  a  soil  contains  plenty  of 
soluble  plant  food  it  is  said  to  be  fertile.     When  plant 

food  becomes  soluble 
in  the  soil  it  is  dis- 
solved in  the  soil  wa- 
ter. This  water  con- 
taining the  plant  food, 
surrounds  the  fine 
roots  and  root  hairs  of 
the  plant,  and  passes 
through  their  thin 
walls  just  as  nourish- 
ment enters  the  blood 
vessels.  In  this  way  plants  get  their  food,  soluble  organic 
matter  and  soluble  mineral  matter,  from  the  soil.  They 
take  in  the  plant  food  with  lar2:e  quantities  of  wa- 
ter.   The  water  is  given  off  from  the  leaves  into  the  air, 


Fig.  1.  —  A  dia- 
gram sliowing 
tiie  approximate 
composition  of 
Wheat.  The  Ash 
and  a  smaU  part 
of  the  Gluten 
are  composed  of 
minerals  taken 
from  the  soil. 
The  balance  is 
c  om  posed  of 
Carbon  Dioxide 
from  the  air  and 
water. 


Fig.  2. — A  diagram  showing  the 
composition  of  a  Potato.  From 
Minnesota  Bulletin  No.   42. 


SOURCES  OF  PLANT  FOOD.  9 

Leaving  the  plant  food  taken  from  the  soil  in  the  plant. 
To  show  plainly  that  liquid  passes  up  through  the  stem 
of  a  plant  and  into  the  leaves,  set  a  branch  from  a  house 
plant  into  a  bottle  of  red  ink  or  colored  liquid,  and  watch 
results.  It  is  seen  that  large  amounts  of  water  are  needed 
by  growing  plants.  Scientists  have  shown  that  to  produce 
one  pound  of  dry  product,  as  hay  or  corn  fodder,  a  plant 
takes  from  the  soil  and  gives  off  to  the  air  from  200  to 
500  pounds  of  water. 

Since  plants  use  water  from  which  to  make  starch  and 
other  similar  substances,  as  well  as  large  quantities  to 
take  up  the  other  plant  food,  it  is  very  necessary  that 
they  be  supplied  with  sufficient  water  at  all  times. 

Soil  Moistura. — There  is  usually  enough  rainfall  in  the 
Northwest  to  produce  good  crops,  but  it  does  not  always 
come  at  the  right  time;  and  often,  during  the  growing 
season,  it  will  not  rain  for  several  weeks.  Unless  land  is 
in  good  condition  to  hold  moisture,  and  well  cultivated  to 
prevent  evaporation  from  the  surface,  it  may  become  too 
dry,  and  then  the  plants  will  not  grow  well  or  may  die. 
Farmers  can  avoid  this  difficulty  largely  by  keeping  vege- 
table matter  in  the  soil,  which  holds  moisture  like  a 
sponge ;  and  by  thorough  cultivation  of  the  surface,  which 
prevents,  to  a  large  extent,  the  loss  of  soil  water  by  evapo- 
ration. By  cultivation  the  soil  is  loosened  at  the  surface 
and  the  water  in  the  ground  cannot  rise  readily  by  capil- 
larity, because  it  is  separated  from  the  sun  and  wind  by 
this  layer  of  loose  soil. 

It  is  in  such  times  that  the  skillful  farmer,  or  the  man 
who  knows  best  how  to  handle  his  soil,  can  get  good  crops, 
when  farmers  who  do  not  know  or  care,  but  just  "trust 
to  luck,"  fail. 

Questions : 

1.  Of  what  substances  are  plants  largely  composed? 

2.  Tell  how  these  substances  are  converted  into  plant 
tissue. 

3.  From  what  source  does  a  plant  get  a  small  but 
essential  portion  of  its  food? 


10  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  wheat  are  produced  on  an 
acre  yielding  20  bu.  ?     (A  bu.  of  wheat  weighs  60  lbs.) 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  corn  are  produced  on  an 
acre  yielding  40  bu.  ?  (A  bu.  of  shelled  corn  weighs 
56  lbs.) 

3.  How  many  pounds  of  potatoes  are  produced  on 
an  acre  yielding  150  bu.  per  acre?  (A  bu.  of  potatoes 
weighs  60  lbs.) 

AVAILABLE    PLANT    FOOD. 

Amount  of  Plant  Food. — Most  soils  contain  enough 
plant  food  to  grow  a  great  many  crops,  several  hundred 
perhaps,  but  this  plant  food  is  not  present  in  the  soil  in 
a  soluble  form  and  it  is  well  it  is  not.  If  it  were  soluble 
it  would  be  dissolved  by  the  water  during  a  heavy  rain, 
and  as  the  water  flowed  off  over  the  fields  and  into  the 
river  it  would  carry  with  it  the  plant  food,  thus  leaving 
the  soil  unproductive.  This  may  be  better  understood  if 
one  takes  two  glasses  of  water,  puts  a  spoonful  of  sand 
into  one  and  a  spoonful  of  sugar  into  the  other,  and  stirs. 
Then  carefully  pour  the  water  out  of  both  glasses.  The 
sugar  being  soluble  has  been  dissolved  and  will  pass  out 
of  the  glass  with  the  water.  The  sand  is  not  soluble  and 
will  remain  in  the  glass. 

Only  a  very  small  amount  of  soluble  plant  food  is 
needed  to  grow  a  crop;  but  while  the  amount  is  small, 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  enough  of  it  to  supply 
the  plants. 

How  Plant  Food  is  Made  Soluble. — There  are  many 
different  ways  of  making  the  insoluble  plant  food  in  the 
soil  soluble.  These  are  Nature's  ways,  and  the  change 
takes  place  naturally  in  soils  under  favorable  conditions. 
But  farmers  can  do  a  great  many  things  to  assist  Nature 
in  this  work. 

One  very  important  condition  of  soil,  which  favors 
making  plant  food  soluble,  is  to  keep  the  soil  well  supplied 


AVAILABLE   PLANT  FOOD. 


with  vegetable  matter  as  it  was  when  the  farmer  first 
broke  up  the  virgin  sod.  Get  a  small  piece  of  sod  from  a 
new  piece  of  breaking,  and  a  handful  of  soil  from  an  old 
field  that  has  grown  nothing  but  corn  or  grain  for  a  great 


Pig,  3. — (1)  A  piece  of  sod  showing  the  grass  roots.  (2)  A  lump 
of  dirt  taken  from  a  field  that  has  grown  corn  continuously  for 
fourteen  years  and  which  is  badly  depleted  of  vegetable  matter. 


many  years.  Notice  that  the  first  is  tough  and  is  held 
together  by  many  fine  roots.  The  roots  are  interwoven 
among  the  soil  grains.  The  handful  of  dirt  from  the  old 
field  contains  little  except  the  particles  of  soil. 

The  plant  roots,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  plants  found 
in  soil,  are  called  vegetable  matter.  AVhen  this  vegetable 
matter  is  partly  decomposed  it  is  called  humus. 

Decay  of  Vagetable  Matter. — When  the  weather  is 
warm  and  the  soil  moist,  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil 
begins  to  decay.  The  vegetable  matter  is  composed  of 
plants,  and  is  made  up  of  the  things  that  growing  plants 


12  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

need  for  food.  When  the  vegetable  matter  decays  the 
substances  of  which  it  is  composed  are  set  free  or  liberat- 
ed, thus  making  plant  food  soluble.  The  vegetable  mat- 
ter decaying  in  the  soil  not  only  liberates  the  plant  food 
of  which  it  is  composed,  but  aids  very  much  in  making 
some  of  the  insoluble  plant  foods  in  the  soil  soluble.  It 
also  aids  by  making  the  soil  warmer  (all  have  noticed 
heat  being  given  off  by  a  decomposing  manure  pile)  and 
by  giving  off  an  acid,  called  organic  acid  because  it  is 
formed  from  organic  matter.  This  acid  acts  on  the  soil 
grains  and  dissolves  a  small  amount  of  mineral  matter  off 
their  surfaces. 

For  the  above  reasons  plant  food  is  made  soluble  much 
more  rapidly  in  a  soil  that  contains  a  good  supply  of 
vegetable  matter,  as  new  sod  land,  than  in  an  old  soil 
from  which  a  large  part  of  the  vegetable  matter  has  been 
used. 

Many  soils  that  have  produced  grain  and  corn  a  great 
many  years  without  the  addition  of  manure  have  become 
nearly  depleted  of  vegetable  matter;  and,  while  they 
usually  contain  plenty  of  plant  food,  it  is  in  an  insoluble 
form  and  plants  cannot  make  use  of  it. 

Adding  Vegetable  Matter. — A  farmer  can  add  vege- 
table matter  to  his  soil  by  growing  on  it  once  in  every 
few  years  such  crops  as  clover,  timothy  and  other  grass 
crops.  These  crops  grow  more  than  one  year  and  con- 
sequently have  a  large  root  system.  These  roots  add  a 
large  supply  of  vegetable  matter ;  so  several  crops  of  corn 
or  grain  can  be  grown  successfully  following  a  crop  of 
grass.  The  application  of  barnyard  manure  is  another 
way  by  which  the  farmer  can  put  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil  and  thereby  increase  its  producing  power. 

Examine  carefully  a  newly  plowed  field  that  has  re- 
cently grown  a  crop  of  tame  grass.  If  possible  note  the 
growth  of  the  crop,  from  time  to  time,  on  such  a  field,  and 
compare  it  with  the  same  kind  of  a  crop  on  an  old  piece 
of  land  that  has  not  been  manured  for  several  years. 


SEED  REQUIREMENTS.  13 

Questions : 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil? 

2.  In  what  way  does  vegetable  matter  assist  in  mak- 
ing plant  food  soluble? 

3.  In  what  ways  may  a  farmer  best  add  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil? 

Arithmetic :  "^ 

1.  How  many  lbs.  of  water  in  20  bu.  of-  wheat  ? 
(Note:     There   are    12  lbs.   of  water  in   100  lbs.   of 

wheat). 

2.  If  70  per  cent,  of  wheat  is  starch,  how  many  lbs. 
of  starch  in  20  bu.  ? 

3.  It  requires  300  lbs.  of  water  to  produce  one  pound 
of  hay.  How  much  water  is  required  to  produce  a  ton 
of  hay? 

SEED    REQUIREMENTS. 

What  Seeds  Contain. — Every  seed  contains  a  tiny 
plant,  the  embryo,  and  a  comparatively  large  amount  of 
food  material  to  furnish  the  embryo  with  food  until  it 
has  developed  into  a  plant  with  roots  and  leaves  and 
can  get  its  food  from  the  soil  and  the  air.  This  is  ex- 
plained more  fully  in  chapter  V,  page  82.  In  the  seeds, 
as  we  plant  them,  the  food  material  is  hard  and  insoluble, 
and  cannot  be  used  by  the  embryo  until  it  has  been  made 
soluble,  any  more  than  a  growing  plant  can  use  the  food 
material  in  the  soil  until  it  has  been  made  soluble. 

Heat,  Air  and  Moisture,  which  awaken  the  embryo, 
also  make  the  food  material  soluble  for  its  use.  If  any 
one  of  these  three  essentials  is  lacking,  seeds  cannot  germi- 
nate; or,  if  a  seed  has  had  heat,  air  and  moisture  until  it 
has  germinated,  and  is  then  deprived  of  any  one  of  the 
three  essentials,  it  will  not  continue  to  grow,  because  its 
food  material  remains  insoluble.  All  the  food  material 
in  a  seed  is  not  made  soluble  at  once.  The  process  goes 
on  very  slowly,  but,  under  favorable  conditions,  fast 
enough  to  furnish  the  necessary  food. 


14 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


The  Need  of  Heat,  Air  and  Moisture  may  be  proved 
by  germinating  several  kernels  of  corn  in  a  germinator 
as  shown  on  page  85.  When  the  kernels  are  well  ger- 
minated, drop  a  few  of  them  into  a  glass  of  water.  Those 
kernels  are  supplied  with  moisture  and  heat,  but  are  de- 
prived of  air.  Put 
otlier  kernels  in  a  pot 
of  perfectly  dry  soil 
or  between  dry  cloths 
where  they  will  get 
heat  and  air  but  no 
moisture.  Place  still 
other  kernels  in  a 
refrigerator  or  some 
cold  place  where  they 
will  get  air  and  mois- 
ture but  no  heat.  Put 
the  remaining  ker- 
nels into  a  flower  pot 
filled  with  loose  soil 
and  keep  it  moist  and 
in  a  warm  place. 
The  air  will  circulate 
through  the  soil  so 
that  the  kernels  in  the  pot  will  have  heat,  air  and  mois- 
ture. Only  these  latter  kernels  will  continue  to  grow. 
While  the  seed  had  heat,  air  and  moisture,  only  a  \ery 
small  part  of  its  food  material  was  made  soluble.  Then, 
as  soon  as  it  was  deprived  of  one  of  the  three  essentials, 
the  process  of  making  food  material  soluble  ceased  and 
the  plant  had  no  food  which  it  could  use,  hence  could  not 
continue  to  grow. 

Why  Seeds  do  not  Germinate. — The  above  experiment 
shows  the  importance  of  having  heat,  air  and  moisture 
present  in  the  soil.  From  a  soil  that  is  filled  with  water 
or  is  very  hard  and  packed,  air  is  excluded  and  seeds 
cannot  germinate  or,  if  an  excess  of  water  comes  after 
the  seeds  have  germinated,  they  cannot  continue  to  grow. 


Fig.  4. — Kernels  of  corn  kept  for 
six  days  under  different  conditions. 
1.  Kept  between  moist  cloths  in 
warm  room.  It  had  heat,  air  and 
moisture.  2.  Kept  in  a  glass  of  wa- 
ter in  a  warm  room.  It  had  heat  and 
moisture  but  no  air.  3.  Kept  be- 
tween moist  cloths  in  cold  room. 
Had  moisture  and  air  but  no  heat. 
4.  Kept  on  the  window  sill  in  a  warm 
room.  Had  heat  and  air  but  no 
moisture. 


SEED   REQUIREMENTS.  15 

From  a  soil  that  is  very  loose  and  light  and  contains  no 
vegetable  matter  moisture  disappears  too  rapidly  and 
seeds  cannot  germinate.  In  the  spring  we  often  have 
several  days  or  a  week  of  cold  weather.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  seeds  do  not  germinate  quickly,  or  if  they  have 
germinated,  grow  very  slowly  or  not  at  all  while  the  cold 
spell  lasts. 

Unfavorable  Conditions. — Farmers  realize  that  heat, 
air  and  moisture  are  needed,  and  as  a  rule  do  not  plant 
seed  when  or  where  it  will  not  have  favorable  conditions. 
You  will  notice  that  in  low  places  that  are  wet  and 
muddy,  when  seed  is  sown,  the  crop  does  not  start  to 
grow  so  quickly  as  on  higher  ground  that  is  just  moist. 
Where  land  is  low,  and  water  stands  nearly  or  quite  to 
the  top  of  the  soil,  the  air  is  crowded  out  and  seed  planted 
in  such  a  place  is  deprived  of  air;  hence  cannot  grow 
until  the  place  dries  out.  There  is  another  reason  why 
the  seed  does  not  grow  so  quickly  in  a  low,  wet  place. 
It  is  because  the  soil  is  colder  in  such  places.  It  takes 
much  more  heat  to  warm  up  a  given  volume  of  water 
than  to  warm  the  same  volume  of  soil.  You  know  this 
from  running  barefoot  on  a  warm  day.  Dry  sand  will 
burn  your  feet,  while  moist  sand  feels  cool.  Likewise, 
you  have  noticed  that  corn  or  grain  on  a  gravelly  or 
sandy  knoll  does  not  start  to  grow  quickly  if  the  weather 
is  dry,  as  such  places  are  very  liable  to  be  too  dry. 

Note  places  on  some  farms  where  crops  do  not  start 
quickly  in  the  spring,  and  try  to  determine  the  cause. 
It  will  very  likely  be  due  to  a  lack  of  one  or  more  of  the 
conditions  mentioned  above. 

Questions : 

1.  In  what  form  is  the  planx  food  of  a  seed  when  the 
seed  is  planted  ? 

2.  What  change  must  take  place  before  the  plant 
can  use  the  plant  food? 

3.  What  three  elements  are  necessary  to  this  change  ? 


16  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  acres  in  a  field  40  rods  square?  (IGO 
sq.  rds.  in  one  acre). 

2.  How  many  feet  wide  is  a  ten-acre  field  40  rods  long  ? 

3.  How  many  times  must  one  cross  a  field  40  rods 
square,  with  a  harrow  12  feet  wide,  to  harrow  the  field? 
How  far  will  he  travel? 

REASONS    FOR    TILLAGE. 

Controlling  Conditions. — A  farmer  realizes  the  neces- 
sity of  heat,  air  and  moisture  for  his  crops;  and,  while 
he  cannot  make  the  climate  warmer  or  cause  rain  to  fall, 
he  can  do  many  things  that  help  to  regulate  the  heat 
and  the  amount  of  air  and  moisture  in  the  soil. 

Usually  the  first  operation  in  preparing  land  for  a 
crop  is  plowing.  Plowing  loosens  the  soil  so  that  air  can 
circulate  through  it  more  readily  and  so  that  moisture 
which  may  fall  upon  it  is  more  readily  taken  up.  If  plow- 
ing is  done  in  the  fall  (which  is  usually  the  better  time 
to  plow),  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation  is  checked. 
The  water  in  the  part  of  the  soil  turned  over  by  the  plow 
(the  furrow  slice)  is  more  quickly  dried  out,  but  the  wa- 
ter in  the  subsoil  (the  soil  below  the  furrow)  is  saved 
because  it  cannot  rise  through  the  loose  furrow  to  the 
surface  and  be  evaporated.  Fall-plowed  land  is  usually 
left  rough.  This  rough  condition  of  the  surface  holds 
the  snow  better  than  a  smooth  surface  would,  and  rain 
falling  on  such  a  soil  settles  into  it  more  readily  than  into 
unplowed  land. 

A  Firm  Seed  Bed. — It  is  very  necessary  that  the  furrow 
slice  become  firmly  packed  against  the  subsoil,  so  that 
moisture  may  move  up  from  below  into  the  furrow  as 
oil  is  raised  in  a  lamp  wick.  Water  is  evaporated  from 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  moisture  must  continue  to 
come  up  from  below  to  supply  the  needs  of  plants  in  the 
iurrow  slice.  Land  plowed  in  the  fall  has  all  winter  in 
which  to  settle  and  become  packed  against  the  subsoil. 


REASONS  FOR  TILLAGE. 


17 


Spring  plowing  loosens  the  soil  and  allows  air  to  cir- 
culate through  it,  and  leaves  it  loose  so  that  rain  falling 
upon  it  can  easily  penetrate,  but  the  furrow  slice  does 
not  have  time  to  settle  back  against  the  subsoil,  hence  a 
spring  plowing  is  more  likely  to  get  too  dry  as  moisture 
does  not  rise  from  below  so  easily  as  in  a  fall  plowing. 

Observations. — Observe  two  fields,  one  fall  plowed 
and  the  other  spring  plowed.  Walk  across  them  and 
notice  how  much  looser  the  spring  plowed  field  is  than 
the  fall  plowed  one.  Observe  also,  early  in  the  morning, 
a  field  that  has  been  recently  harrowed.  You  will  find 
that  the  main  part  of  the  surface  is  dry  and  loose,  but 


Fig.    5. — Plowing.     Note   the    straight   and   well    turned    furrow.     Good 
plowing  is  the  first  and  most  important  tillage  operation. 


that  in  the  footprints  of  the  man  who  followed  the 
liarrow  the  surface  is  moist.  This  is  because  the  sur- 
face was  packed  by  the  man's  weight  and  the  moisture 
came  up  from  below.    In  the  middle  of  the  day  you  will 


18  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

not  see  this  moist  surface,  because  the  sun  and  wind  will 
evaporate  the  moisture  as  fast  as  it  comes  to  the  surface. 

This  shows  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  soil  loose 
on  top. 

Harrowing  not  only  saves  moisture  but  helps  to  warm 
the  soil  in  the  spring  by  checking  evaporation.  That 
evaporation  of  moisture  cools  the  soil  is  easily  demon- 
strated by  wetting  one  hand,  then  exposing  both  hands. 
The  wet  one  will  feel  cool  at  once. 

Spring  plowing  must  be  thoroughly  disked  and  har- 
rowed to  pack  it  down  against  the  subsoil,  and  fall  plow- 
ing must  be  thoroughly  disked  and  harrowed  to  loosen 
the  surface  soil,  thus  preventing  moisture  reaching  the 
surface  where  it  would  be  evaporated.  Harrowing  a  fall 
plowing  helps  to  warm  the  soil  and  to  make  a  good 
seed  bed. 

Ideal  Conditions  for  a  soil  on  which  the  common  field 
crops  are  to  be  grown  are :  First,  a  loose  surface  soil. 
Second,  a  firm,  moist,  mellow  seed  bed  below  the  loose 
surface.  Third,  a  subsoil  which  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  moisture  that  in  time  of  drouth  may  be  passed 
up  to  the  seed  bed  to  be  used  by  the  growing  plants. 

We  often  see  a  piece  of  land  that  is  hard  and  baked. 
Such  soil  does  not  afford  favorable  conditions  for  grow- 
ing crops.  It  is  usually  a  soil  made  up  of  small  particles 
called  clay.  "When  the  weather  is  wet  such  land  will  hold 
too  much  moisture  and  thus  have  an  insufficient  amount 
of  air.  During  a  dry  spell  it  bakes  and  becomes  too  hard. 
Such  a  soil  is  greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of  vege- 
table matter;  as  the  vegetable  matter  separates  the  par- 
ticles of  soil,  thus  giving  a  better  circulation  of  air  when 
the  soil  is  wet,  and  when  the  soil  becomes  dry  the  vege- 
table matter  gives  up  the  moisture  which  it  holds,  thus 
keeping  the  soil  from  getting  too  dry  and  baking. 

A  light,  sandy  soil  is  liable  to  become  too  dry  at  times. 
A  reasonable  supply  of  vegetable  matter  in  such  a  soil 
will  greatly  overcome  this  difficulty,  as  the  vegetable 
matter  holds  moisture  better  than  the  sand.  Vegetable 
matter  benefits  most  of  our  soils  by  making  them  warm- 


THE  SEED  BED.  19 

er.  It  does  this  in  two  ways.  First,  by  giving  off  heat 
while  decaying.  Second,  by  making  the  soil  darker.  A 
dark  soil  absorbs  more  heat  and  is  therefore  warmer  than 
a  light-colored  soil.  Proof  for*  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  a 
light-colored  coat  is  cooler  in  summer  than  a  black  one. 

A  farmer  can  make  his  soil  warmer  by  cultivating  it, 
by  draining  it  and  by  keeping  it  supplied  with  vegetable 
matter.  Pie  can  keep  air  in  the  soil  by  cultivation,  by 
drainage  and  by  the  application  of  vegetable  matter. 
He  can  keep  it  moist  by  cultivating,  as  keeping  the  sur- 
face loose  prevents  evaporation  and  allows  the  rainfall 
to  enter  readily,  and  by  keeping  a  good  supply  of  vege- 
table matter  to  retain  water. 

Questions : 

1.  Give  some  of  the  advantages  of  fall  plowing  over 
spring  plowing. 

2.  In  what  ways  may  a  farmer  check  the  loss  of 
moisture  from  his  soil? 

3.  Of  what  value  is  vegetable  matter  to  a  light  soil? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  square  rods  in  a  fi^ld  4  rods  wide 
and  40  rods  long?    How  many  acres? 

2.  How  many  rounds  must  a  farmer  make  to  plow 
a  field  4  rods  wide? 

(Note :  A  round  means  across  the  field  and  back. 
A  plow  turns  a  furrow  14  inches  wide). 

3.  How  far  must  a  team  travel  (not  counting  the 
turn)  to  plow  one  round  on  a  field  40  rods  long? 

4.  How  far  must  they  travel  to  plow  one  acre? 

THE   SEED    BED. 

Yields. — The  way  in  which  the  seed  bed  is  prepared 
has  much  to  do  with  the  success  of  the  crop  grown. 
Where  farms  are  large  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to 
rush  through  the  spring  work  and  get  in  a  large  acre- 
age of  crops,  but  often  without  due  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed.  Such  hasty  work  at  seeding  time  is  very  often 
the  chief  cause  of  a  poor  harvest. 


20  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

A  great  deal  of  the  land  now  cropped  gives  such 
poor  yields  that  very  little,  if  any,  profit  is  left  to  the 
farmer.  Better  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  is  one  of 
the  steps  in  increasing  the  yields  from  such  land. 

A  yield  of  twenty-five  bushels  of  oats  per  acre  leaves 
the  farmer  no  profit,  as  it  costs  as  much  to  raise  them 
as  they  are  worth.  A  yield  of  forty  bushels  per  acre 
leaves  considerable  margin  for  profit.  'Twenty-five  acres 
of  oats  yielding  forty  bushels  per  acre  are  much  more 
profitable  than  forty  acres  yielding  twenty-five  bushels 
per  acre,  as  the  same  amount  of  oats  is  raised  with  less 
land  and  labor. 

A  good  seed  bed  must  be  moist  (not  wet),  firm  enough 
so  it  will  not  dry  out  quickly,  loose  enough  to  permit  air 
to  enter  the  soil,  and  warm  enough  to  cause  the  seed 
to  germinate.  The  farmer  cannot  regulate  the  weather, 
but  he  can  do  many  things  to  assist  in  regulating  these 
conditions,  and  such  is  the  object  of  tillage. 

Air  is  Needed  in  the  soil  to  start  the  seed  to  germinate 
and  to  supply  the  oxygen  necessary  in  the  chemical  ac- 
tion which  must  take  place  in  the  soil,  to  make  the  plant 
food  in  the  seed  available  for  the  growing  plantlet  and 
to  break  down  plant  food  in  the  soil  on  which  the  plant- 
let  can  feed  after  it  has  used  up  the  food  stored  in  the 
seed.  Cultivation  with  a  disc  or  harrow  stirs  up  the 
soil  and  lets  the  air  circulate  through  it. 

Moisture  is  needed  in  the  soil — First,  to  dissolve  the 
plant  food  in  the  seed  planted,  so  that  the  little  plantlet 
can  make  use  of  it.  Second,  to  supply  the  growing  plant 
with  water.  Third,  to  assist  in  the  chemical  action  in 
the  soil  which  liberates  plant  food.  Fourth,  to  carry 
the  plant  food  to  the  plant.  Cultivation  of  the  soil  helps 
to  retain  moisture,  by  checking  evaporation  from  the 
surface  by  means  of  the  surface  mulch  and  by  loosen- 
ing up  the  surface  soil  so  any  rain  that  falls  will  settle 
into  it  instead  of  running  off  over  the  surface. 

Need  of  Heat. — Seeds  will  not  germinate,  neither  will 
plants  grow,  unless  the  soil  has  a  certain  amount  of  heat 
in  it.     Pleat  is  necessary  before  the  chemical  action  can 


THE   SEED   BED. 


21 


begin.  One  can  not  make  the  weather  warmer,  but  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil,  keeping  it  loose  on  top  so  as  to  check 
evaporation  from  the  surface,  helps  to  warm  up  the  soil. 
The  circulation  of  air,  promoted  by  good  tillage,  is  also 
quite  a  factor  in  warming  the  soil  in  the  spring.  The 
air  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  becomes  warmed  by  the 
sun,  and  if  it  can  enter  the  soil  it  helps  to  warm  that  also. 

Methods  of  Preparing  the  Seed  Bed. — The  best  seed 
bed  is  formed  by  plowing  land  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  por- 
tion turned  over  by  the  plow  will  have  a  chance  to  settle 
down  upon  the  soil  beneath  (the  subsoil).    Then  moisture, 


Fig. 


-Preparing  the  seed  bed  by  disking. 


which  is  usually  present  in  the  subsoil,  may  move  up 
into  the  furrow  slice  by  capillary  action,  as  oil  rises  in  a 
lampwick.  This  moisture  is  often  necessary  to  supply 
growing  crops  during  times  when  it  does  not  rain  for 
several  days.  Fall  plowing,  disced  and  harrowed  to 
loosen  the  surface,  makes  an  excellent  seed  bed.  In  oth- 
er words  a  firm,  mellow  soil  below,  covered  by  two  inches 
of  loose,  fine  soil  is  the  condition  desired. 


22  AGRICULTURE  B^OR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

If  land  must  be  plowed  in  the  spring,  very  thorough 
harrowing  is  necessary  to  work  the  soil  up  fine  and  to 
assist  in  firming  the  furrow  slice  so  as  to  form  good 
capillary  connection  with  the  subsoil. 

Close  observation  of  fields  in  the  process  of  prepara- 
tion for  seeding  will  illustrate  forcefully  the  points  men- 
tioned above. 
Questions : 

1.  What  is  the  principal  work  of  the  farmer  during 
April? 

2.  What  are  the  essential  conditions  of  a  good  seed 
bed? 

3.  Why  is  air  needed  in  the  soil,  and  how  may  it  be 
secured  ? 

4.  Why  is  moisture  needed  in  the  soil,  and  how  may 
it  be  retained  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  wheat  is  worth  70c  per  bu.  and  it  costs  15c 
per  acre  to  harrow  land,  how  many  times  can  one  af- 
ford to  harrow  an  acre  of  land  to  increase  the  yield 
two  bu.  ? 

2.  If  wheat  is  worth  70c  per  bu.  and  it  costs  35c  per 
acre  to  disc  land,  how  many  times  can  one  afford  to 
disc  an  acre  of  land  to  increase  the  yield  2  bu.  per  acre  ? 

3.  Field  A  yields  25  bu.  of  oats,  field  B  yields  40  bu. 
of  oats,  how  many  more  dollars'  worth  of  labor  can  one 
afford  to  put  on  field  A  than  on  field  B,  if  oats  are  worth 
35c  per  bu.  ? 

PLANTING. 

Time  to  Plant. — Crops  that  are  not  easily  killed  by 
frost,  as  wheat  and  oats,  are  usually  the  first  crops 
sown.  Seeds  of  these  crops  will  germinate  at  a  com- 
paratively low  temperature,  as  low  as  from  41  to  50  de- 
grees F.  The  soil  usually  reaches  this  temperature  in 
the  spring  about  as  soon  as  one  can  begin  discing  and 
harrowing,  and  land  that  is  well  disced  and  harrowed 
reaches  this  temperature  earlier,  as  shown  in  the  preced- 
ing lesson.     It  is   usually  wise   to   sow  these   crops   as 


PLANTING. 


23 


early  as  possible  and  thus  avoid  the  danger  from  rust, 
smut  and  hot  winds  that  are  more  likely  to  injure  late 
sown  grain  crops. 

Barley  may  be  sown  early,  but  it  is  more  liable  to 
injury  from  frost.  Experiments  show  that  the  best  yields 
are  obtained  by  sowing  a  week  or  ten  days  later  than 
the  first  seeding  of  wheat  or  oats.  This  is  also  the  most 
convenient  time,  as  it  permits  one  to  sow  the  other 
grains  first,  and  then  to  prepare  the  barley  land.  Barley 
may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  last  of  May  if  necessary, 
which  is  sometimes  the  case  on  low,  wet  land,  but  earlier 
sowing  is  better. 


Fig.    7. — Seeding  with  a  drill.     The  dragging  chains  cover  the  seeds, 
which   are  placed   in   the   ground  at  a   uniform  depth. 


Depth  to  Plant. — There  are  two  ways  to  sow  grain. 
First,  by  a  broadcast  seeder,  which  scatters  the  seed  on 
top  of  the  ground,  where  they  are  covered  by  cultivat- 
ing or  by  harrowing.  In  this  process  some  seeds  are 
left  on  the  surface  uncovered,  while  others  are  covered 
as  deep  as  the  land  is  cultivated.  This  causes  the  seeds 
to  germinate  unevenly ;  and,  if  the  land  becomes  too  dry. 


24  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

much  of  the  seed  on  the  surface  will  not  grow,  while 
if  the  soil  is  too  wet  much  of  the  deeply  sown  seed  will 
not  grow.  The  better  method  of  sowing  is  with  a  drill 
which  deposits  all  the  seed  at  a  uniform  depth  and  at 
any  depth  desired.  In  early  seeding  one  should  plant 
quite  shallow,  from  one  to  two  inches,  as  the  soil  is 
warmer  near  the  surface  and  the  seed  and  small  plants 
should  have  all  the  heat  available.  On  the  other  hand, 
seed  sown  too  shallow  will  not  grow  well  if  the  weather 
remains  dry  for  some  time,  as  the  surface  of  the  soil 
dries  out  too  quickly  and  leaves  the  plant  improperly 
supplied  with  moisture.  Later  in  the  season  when  the 
soil  is  warmer  and  plants  grow  more  quickly  it  is  often 
well  to  plant  the  seed  a  little  deeper,  from  two  to  three 
inches,  thus,  giving  the  plants  a  better  chance  to  get 
moisture.       4 

The  depth  of  planting  should  vary  also  with  the 
kind  of  soil.  In  light,  dry  soil  one  should  sow  deeper 
than  in  heavj^  wet  soil. 

Experiment. — It  is  interesting  to  plant  short  rows 
of  seeds  at  different  depths  and  at  different  times,  not- 
ing results.  Early  in  spring  plant  four  short  rows  of 
oats  or  wheat.  In  the  first  row,  plant  seeds  one  inch 
deep;  in  the  second  row,  two  inches  deep;  in  the  third 
row,  three  inches^  deep ;  and  in  the  fourth  row,  four  inches 
deep. 

Plant  an  equal  number  of  seeds  in  each  row  and 
note  the  time  required  for  plants  to  come  up,  number 
of  plants  that  grow  and  strength  of  plants.  Repeat  the 
experiment  later  when  the  soil  is  warmer. 

Questions : 

1.  What  three  conditions  must  a  seed  have  before 
it  can  grow? 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  time  of  planting? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
shallow  and  deep  planting? 


PLANTING.  25 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  the  average  yield  of  wheat  in  the  United  States 
is  13.9  bu.  per  acre,  what  is  the  average  value  of  an  acre 
of  wheat  at  70c  per  bu? 

2.  If  it  costs  $7.89  to  produce  an  acre  of  wheat,  what 
is  the  average  profit  per  acre?     (See  example  No.  1). 

3.  If  the  average  yield  of  oat§  in  the  United  States 
is  32  bu.  per  acre,  what  is  the  value  of  an  average  acre  of 
oats  at  28c  per  bu.  ? 

4.  If  it  costs  $8.83  to  produce  an  acre  of  oats,  what 
is  the  average  profit  per  acre? 


CHAPTER  II. 
TILLAGE. 

OBJECTS   OF   PLOWING. 

Plowing  not  Monotonous. — ^Did  you  ever  wonder  as 
you  watched  men  plowing,  why  they  were  doing  it?  Or 
did  you  ever  think  that  plowing  must  be  very  monoton- 
ous work — going  forth  and  back,  forth  and  back,  across 
the  field  day  after  day?  Plowing  is  not  unpleasant 
work.  In  fact,  most  men  like  to  plow.  It  is  a  quiet, 
peaceful  work,  and  after  the  rush  and  anxiety  of  har- 
vest time,  it  really  seems  restful.  Plowing  is  certainly 
not  monotonous  work  if  one  knows  why  he  is  plowing, 
and  how  and  when  to  plow. 

Plowing  Mellows  the  Soil. — One  of  the  chief  reasons 
for  plowing  is  to  stir  the  soil  and  make  it  loose  and  mel- 
low, so  the  air  can  circulate  through  it,  and  so  the  moist- 
ure can  settle  down  into  it.  When  the  soil  has  settled 
all  summer  and  had  the  heavy  rains  beating  on  it,  it  be- 
comes packed  and  hard,  and  must  be  loosened  to  pre- 
pare it  for  a  new  crop. 

Plowing  Saves  Moisture  for  the  next  crop.  When 
the  ground  is  packed,  as  it  is  when  the  crops  are  removed 
in  the  fall,  it  is  so  hard  that  when  it  rains  much  of  the 
water  runs  off  over  the  surface  instead  of  settling  down 
into  the  soil.  Plowing  overcomes  this  difficulty,  and  by 
loosening  the  surface,  any  moisture  that  may  be  in  the 
subsoil  (the  soil  below  the  plowed  furrow)  is  retained, 
because  this  water  cannot  readily  pass  up  through  the 
loose  plowed  soil.  If  the  ground  were  not  plowed  the 
soil  moisture  would  rise  clear  to  the  surface,  by  capil- 
larity, just  as  oil  rises  in  a  lampwick,  and  when  it  got 
near  the  surface  the  sun  and  wind  would  evaporate  it. 

Plowing  Destroys  Weeds. — It  is  natural  for  all  good 
soils  to  be  producing  something  at  all  times  during  the 
growing  season.     As  soon  as  the  crop  is  removed   (and 


OBJECTS   OP^  PLOWING.  27 

very  often  before)  weeds  begin  to  grow.  If  nothing  is 
done  to  prevent  it  they  will  go  to  seed,  and  thus  cause 
trouble  later.  Plowing  stops  their  growth.  It  also  turns 
up  new  soil  to  the  light,  and  weed  seeds  which  have  been 
too  deep  in  the  soil  to  grow,  are  brought  near  the  sur- 
face where  they  can  grow.  If  the  plowing  is  done  in 
the  fall  these  weeds  start  to  grow,  but  do  not  have  time 
to  produce  seed  before  they  are  killed  by  frost. 


Fig-.  8. — First  year  clover  g-rowing-  in  stubble.  Such  a  crop  will 
furnish  better  pasture  than  many  cattle  are  furnished,  and  is  a 
benefit  to  the  soil.  It  would  be  unwise  to  plow  such  a  field  early 
in  the  fall,  if  one  has  stock  that  can  make  use  of  the  feed. 

Plowing  Destroys  Insects. — Many  insects,  such  as 
grasshoppers  and  cut-worms,  are  checked  by  plowing  in 
the  fall.  The  mature  insects  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground 
in  the  fall,  and  if  the  eggs  are  not  disturbed,  they  hatch 
out  the  next  spring,  and  it  is  the  young  from  these  eggs 
that  do  the  damage.  Fall  plowing  disturbs  the  eggs  and 
many  of  them  are  destroyed. 

Plowing  Helps  to  Liberate  Plant  Food. — We  learned 
in  an  earlier  lesson  that  plants  require  food  in  a  soluble 
form;  that  is,  food  in  such  condition  that  it  will  dis- 
solve in  water.  See  page  10.  Plowing  assists  in  mak- 
ing portions  of  the  soil  soluble,  by  pulverizing  it,  break- 
ing up  the  soil  particles,  exposing  new  surfaces,  and 
allowing  the  sun,  wind  and  water  to  net  on  it  more 
freely  than  such  elements  can  act  on  unplowed  hmd. 


28  AGRICUI/rURP]   FOR  YOUNG  B^OLKS. 

Plowing  Covers   Manure    and   Crop   Residue. — It  is 

generally  considered  good  practice  to  haul  manure  di- 
rectly from  the  barn  to  the  field  before  it  has  rotted, 
as  much  of  its  value  is  saved  in  this  way.  If  a  rather 
heavy  dressing  is  applied,  it  is  troublesome  in  harrow- 
ing, sowing  and  cultivating,  unless  it  is  plowed  under 
out  of  reach  of  the  harrow  and  other  tools,  but  still 
where  the  plant  roots  can  reach  it. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  note  the  effect  of  plowing, 
by  observing  the  work  as  it  is  being  done  in  some  con- 
veniently located  field. 

Questions : 

1.  Explain  how  plowing  saves  moisture. 

2.  In  what  two  ways  does  plowing  destroy  weeds? 

3.  How  does  plowing  destroy  insects? 

4.  How  does  plowing  assist  in  liberating  plant  food? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  plow  turns  a  furrow  14  inches  wide.  How  many 
furrows  must  one  plow  to  plow  a  strip  7  rods  wide? 

2.  How  far  will  a  team  travel  in  plowing  with  a 
single  14  in.  plow  a  field  7  rods  wide  and  40  rods  long? 

3.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  7  rods  by  40 
rods  ? 

TIME  TO    PLOW. 

Condition  of  Soil. — The  greatest  problem  that  a  plow- 
man has  to  solve,  is  to  determine  the  proper  time  to 
plow.  Both  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  condition  of 
the  soil  must  be  considered.  If  a  heavy,  clayey  soil  is 
plowed  when  it  is  too  wet,  the  lumps  turned  up  become 
hard  clods  when  dry,  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  pul- 
verize into  a  good  seed  bed.  This  is  especially  true  if 
plowing  is  done  in  the  spring.  Plowing  clayey  land  that 
is  wet  is'  not  objectionable,  however,  if  done  in  the  fall 
and  the  field  is  not  sown  until  spring,  as  the  thawing 
and  freezing  during  winter  aids  in  pulverizing  any  clods 
that  may  form.  Light  sandy  or  loam  soil  may  be  plow- 
ed when  wet  without  any  serious  trouble. 


TIME    TO    PLOW. 


2d 


Time  of  Year  to  Plow. — As  a  rule  early  fall  plowing 
is  preferable,  as  it  allows  the  ground  to  become  settled 
before  the  crop  is  sown,  thus  making  it  less  likely  to 
become  too  dry  during  the  summer.  Early  fall  plowing 
also  destroys  weeds  by  turning  up  new  seeds,  which 
start  to  grow  in  the  fall,  and  are  soon  killed  by  frost, 
while  if  the  same  seeds  were  turned  up  late  in  the  fall 
the  plants  would  grow  in  the  spidng  and  trouble  the 
crops.  Fall  plowing  also  facilitates  spring  work,  and,  by 
leaving  the  soil  exposed  to  the  elements,  aids  in  liberat- 
ing plant  food. 


Fig.  9. — Rape  growing-  in  a  stubble  field.  Such  a  crop  may  be 
raised  for  fall  feed  at  a  very  small  cost  per  acre.  Rape  is  excel- 
lent feed  for  any  kind  of  stock  but  milch  cows.  One  might  be 
justified  in  neglecting  to  plow  such  a  field  early. 


When  Not  to  Plow  in  Early  Fall. — ^If  some  catch 
crop  is  growing  in  the  stu})ble  field,  as  clover,  rape  or 
rye,  tTiat  can  be  used  to  advantage  for  fall  pasture,  fall 
plowing — at  least  early  fall  plowing — is  not  always  ad- 
visable. The  green  crop  and  pasturing  will  prevent 
largely  the  growth  of  weeds,  and  the  green  crop  checks 
to  some  extent  the  loss  of  moisture.  Thus  at  least  two 
reasons  for  early  plowing  are  removed.    The  green  crop, 


30  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

whether  plowed  under  or  pastured  off,  would  add  con- 
siderable vegetable  matter  to  the  soil,  which  would  be 
of  more  value  to  the  next  crop  than  would  the  plant 
food  that  would  be  liberated  by  the  early  fall  plowing. 
As  the  country  becomes  more  thickly  settled,  and  better 
methods  of  farming  are  practiced,  farmers  will  have 
fewer  fields  lying  idle  during  the  fall.  Many  farmers 
now  get  from  50c  to  $4.00  worth  of  feed  per  acre  from 
their  fields  after  the  main  crop  has  been  harvested. 
This  income  is  almost  entirely  net  profit,  and  cannot  be 
overlooked  as  more  intensive  systems  of  farming  are 
made  necessary  by  higher  priced  land. 

Fall  Feed. — On  many  farms  pastures  are  very  poor 
during  the  fall  and  cattle  must  be  fed  dry  feed  or,  what 
more  often  follows,  allowed  to  get  poor  or  to  run  down 
in  milk  flow.  Such  conditions  are  very  undesirable,  and 
in  most  years  unnecessary.  Clover  sown  with  the  grain 
crop  in  the  spring,  or  rye  sown  in  the  stubble  as 
soon  as  the  grain  crop  is  removed,  or  rape  sown  at  al- 
most any  season  of  the  year,  wall  in  ordinary  years  fur- 
nish an  abundance  of  fall  pasture.  Good  fall  pasture 
not  only  furnishes  cheap  feed  during  the  fall,  but  gives 
stock  an  excellent  start  for  winter.  While  the  old  habit 
of  getting  all  the  land  plowed  in  the  fall  was  an  excel- 
lent one,  and  necessary  when  grain  was  the  only  crop, 
there  are  now  many  instances  where  much  better  re- 
sults would  be  obtained  were  some  of  the  fields  made 
to  produce  fall  pasture  rather  than  left  bare  during 
the  fall,  in  which  condition  more  or  less  plant  food  is 
lost  by  such  exposure.  If  catch  crops  are  grown  on  the 
field  so  that  early  fall  plowing  can  not  be  done,  it  is 
better  to  plow  late  in  the  fall  than  to  wait  until  spring. 
Most  crops  do  better  on  fall  plowing  than  on  spring 
plowing.  Spring  plowing,  being  loose,  is  likely  to  be- 
come too  dry. 

No  Best  Time, — There  is  no  best  time  to  plow.  The 
time  must  be  determined  by  conditions.  It  is  hoped 
that  those  who  read  this  lesson  will  think  about  the 
things   mentioned,   and   observe  what   the   best  farmers 


ART  OF  PLOWING.  31 

in  their   neighborhoods  are   doing.     They  will  then  be 
better  able  to  decide  intelligently  when  to  plow. 
Questions : 

1.  What  danger  is  there  in  plowing  a  heavy  clay 
soil  when  it  is  wet? 

2.  What  is  to  be  gained  by  early  fall  plowing  ? 

3.  Give  some  reasons  which  may  make  it  advisable 
to  defer  plowing  until  late  in  the  fall. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  4  lbs.  of  clover  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient  to  sow 
with  a  grain  crop  for  fall  pasture.  What  is  the  cost 
per  acre  of  such  pasture  if  clover  seed  is  worth  15c  per 
pound  ? 

2.  If  one  acre  of  such  pasture  furnishes  feed  for  a 
cow  for  20  days,  the  cow  giving  %  pounds  of  butter  fat 
per  day,  how  much  butter  fat  is  produced  per  acre? 
What  is  it  worth  at  20c  per  pound? 

3.  3  pounds  of  rape  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient  to 
sow  with  a  grain  crop  for  fall  pasture.  What  is  the 
cost  per  acre  of  such  a  crop  if  rape  seed  is  worth  5c  per 
pound  ? 

4.  One  acre  of  such  rape  will  feed  10  sheep  for  1 
week.  They  will  gain  2  pounds  per  week  each.  How 
many  pounds  of  mutton  are  produced  per  acre?  What 
is  it  worth  at  5c  per  pound  ? 

THE  ART  OF   PLOWING. 

Plowing  an  Art. — Is  plowing  tiresome  work?  This 
question  may  be  answered  in  the  affirmative  by  a  poor 
plowman,  but  never  by  a  good  plowman.  A  plowman 
who  knows  how  to  plow  and  plows  well  can  always 
find  enjoyment  in  his  work,  just  as  one  can  who  does 
any  kind  of  work  well.  A  plowman  is  just  as  much 
an  artist  as  is  one  who  paints  a  picture  or  carves  a 
statue.  To  plow  a  good,  straight,  even  furrow  requires 
skill,  application  and  good  judgment.  And  one  who  can 
plow  such  a  furrow  as'  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  on 
page  32,  can  justly  feel  proud  of  his  ability,  and  is  cer- 
tainly a  credit  to  his  profession. 


32 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


The  Team. — To  do  really  good  plowing  one  must 
have  the  confidence  of  his  team.  A  man  who  is  cruel 
or  inhuman  with  his  team,  and  keeps  them  afraid  of 
him,  cannot  do  as  good  work  or  as  much  of  it  as  one 
who  is  kind  and  gentle  and  gives  his  team  a  fair  chance. 
A  team  that  is  afraid  of  being  jerked  or  whipped  can- 
not be  made  to  go  straight  or  steady.  An  expensive, 
spirited  or  stylish  team  is  not  necessary;  but  a  good 
plow  team  should  be  able  to  work,  have  on  a  comfort- 
able harness,  know  what  is  expected  of  them  and  be 
given  a  fair  chance  to  do  it. 

The  Plow.— A  plow 
to  do  good  work  must 
first  of  all  be  firm  in 
its  joints,  with  all 
bolts  in  place  and 
properly  tightened.  It 
should  have  a  good, 
sharp  share,  that  will 
cut  off  rose  bushes  or 
other  roots  instead  of 
slipping  past  them. 
All  parts  that  come 
in  contact  with  the 
soil  must  be  smooth, 
hard,  polished  and 
kept  bright  and  clean, 
so  the  soil  will  not 
stick  to  them.  The 
mouldboard,  or  part 
that  turns  the  furrow, 
must  have  the  proper 

Fig.   10.— A  good  straight  furrow  plowed  CUrVC  to  turU  the  fur- 

by  a  student  in   the  plowing  contest.  rOW     aS    dcsircd.          If 

By  plowing  back  as  his  team  is  head-  ,        .                j      ai,          i, 

ed  he   will  have  two  furrows   thrown  plOWmg    SOQ,    tnc    OD- 

laSd^'^^""  ^^^""^  "^'^  ^°''"'  ^  "^^^^'  ject  is  to  turn  it  over 

evenly  without  break- 
ing it,  so  a  long  mouldboard  that  turns  the  furrow  gradu- 
ally  is   used    (examine    a   breaking   plow).     If  plowing 


ART   OF   PLOWING.  33 

stubble  land,  the  object  is  to  pulverize  it  or  break  up 
the  soil  into  fine  particles,  so  a  short  mouldboard  with  a 
rather  sharp  turn  is  needed   (examine  a  stubble  plow). 

Condition  of  Plow. — A  plow  in  proper  condition 
should  run  smoothly  and  at  an  even  depth,  with  very 
little  effort  on  the  part  of  the  plowman.  When  a  plow 
does  not  run  smoothly,  when  the  plowman  must  bear 
down  or  lift  up  on  the  handles,  or  must  constantly  hold 
the  plow  either  one  way  or  the  other  to  keep  it  from 
tipping  over,  something  is  wrong  with  it.  The  point 
tips  down  or  up  too  much,  or  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
share  is  dull  or  slants  down  or  up  too  much.  A  good 
plowman  must  know  how  a  good  plow  should  work, 
and  when  it  does  not  work  right  should  know  what  is 
wrong  with  it.  To  know  these  things  requires  as  much 
thought  and  study  and  mental  and  mechanical  ability  as 
to  understand  a  telephone  or  a  telegraph  instrument. 

The  Field. — Sometimes  farmers  plow  a  field  by  start- 
ing at  the  outside  each  year  and  plowing  around  and 
around  until  the  field  is  plowed.  Such  a  method  throws 
dirt  to  the  outside  each  year  and  gradually  builds  up  a 
high  ridge.  (Examine  some  of  the  fields  in  your  neigh- 
borhood and  you  will  probably  find  such  conditions.)  This 
gives  a  very  slovenly  appearance  to  the  field,  and  makes 
trouble  in  using  the  harvester  and  other  machines.  A 
far  better  way  is  to  plow  the  field  in  lands.  A  field 
is  said  to  be  plowed  in  lands  when  it  is  plowed  in  nar- 
row strips,  so  that  every  furrow  reaches  clear  across 
the  field.    The  team  goes  without  plowing  across  the  end. 

.To  Plow  in  Lands  a  furrow  is  plowed  directly  across 
the  field  and  parallel  with  one  side.  The  team  is  turn- 
ed to  the  right,  at  the  end,  and  a  furrow  plowed  back 
across  the  field,  thus  throwing  the  two  furrows  together. 
This  is  called  a  back  furrow  or  headland.  The  plow- 
man continues  plowing  about  this  headland  until  the 
plowed  strip  is  as  wide  as  he  desires.  The  usual  width 
is   about   four  rods.     The    plowman   then   measures   off 


34  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

at  right  angles  to  the  plowed  strip,  six  rods,  and  plows 
another  furrow  parallel  to  the  first  furrow.  At  the  end 
he  turns  to  the  right,  thus  forming  a  new  "headland." 
He  plows  about  this  until  it  is  as  wide  as  the  first,  or 
four  rods.  Two  of  the  four  rods  is  plowed  off  of  the 
six  rods  measured  off  and  two  of  the  four  rods  is  out- 
side of  the  six  rods.  Thus  he  has  two  plowed  strips 
each  four  rods  wide  with  an  unplowed  strip  between 
them  also  four  rods  wide.  He  then  turns  his  team  to 
the  left  and  plows  the  four  rod  strip  remaining,  plow- 
ing from  the  outside  toward  the  center.  The  last  two 
furrows  are  thus  thrown  apart,  leaving  a  ditch  called 
a  ''dead  furrow."  The  next  time  the  field  is  plowed 
''Headlands"  are  made  in  the  old  "dead  furrows"  and 
"dead  furrows"  are  made  in  the  old  "headlands." 

Questions : 

1.  What  makes  plowing,  or  any  other  work,  inter- 
esting ? 

2.  How  does  the  treatment  of  a  plowman's  team 
affect  the  work? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  requirements  of  a  good  plow. 

4.  Why  is  it  not  wise  to  always  plow  a  field  by 
plowing  around  and  around  it? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  man  with  two  horses  can  plow  two  acres 
in  eight  hours,  what  is  the  cost  per  acre  to  plow  when 
a  man's  time  is  worth  14c  per  hour  and  each  horse's 
time  is  worth  8c  per  hour? 

2.  If  a  man  with  4  horses  can  plow  four  acres  in 
eight  hours,  what  is  the  cost  per  acre  to  plow,  with 
man  and  horse  labor  at  the  same  rate  as  given  in  ex- 
ample No.  1? 

3.  If  one  can  plow  10  days  in  August,  15  days  in 
September,  and  10  days  in  October,  how  much  can  he 
plow  during  the  fall,  with  two  horses,  plowing  2  acres 
per  day  T    With  4  horses  plowing  4  acres  per  day  ? 


A  PLOWING   CONTEST.  35 

A   PLOWING   CONTEST. 

A  Novel  Contest. — Many  may  never  have  heard  of 
a  plowing  contest.  Such  contests  are  very  common  in 
Canada,  but  in  the  United  States  most  people  feel  that 
they  are  too  busy  to  take  part  in  such  a  thing.  Plow- 
ing affords  a  most  excellent  field  for  a  contest,  and  gives 
a  better  opportunity  for  all  to  compete  than  does  a 
horse  race  or  a  football  game'  In  a  horse  race  only 
those  who  have  money  to  buy  the  best  horses  can  win, 
and  in  football  only  those  who  are  endowed  with  a 
strong  physique  can  make  really  first-class  players.  In 
a  plowing  contest  any  one  with  a  fairly  good  farm  team 
stands  an  equal  chance  with  the  rest,  if  he  uses  the 
skill  which  he  may  acquire  and  applies  himself  diligent- 
ly to  the  task.  Every  competitor  in  a  plowing  contest 
is  sure  to  win  if  he  really  tries.  He  may  not  win  the 
prize,  but  he  is  sure  to  gain  skill  and  knowledge  which 
will  make  him  a  better  plowman,  a  better  farmer,  and 
consequently  a  better  citizen. 

Plan  of  Contest. — One  of  the  best  contests  ever  held 
among  the  students  at  the  Minnesota  School  of  Agri- 
culture was  a  plowing  contest.  There  were  three  class- 
es in  the  contest.  Freshmen,  Juniors  and  Seniors.  Each 
class  chose  by  trial  three  of  its  best  plowmen.  So  there 
were  nine  young  men  contesting.  Each  was  given  a 
team,  a  walking  plow  and  required  to  ''strike  out" 
two  headlands  twenty  feet  apart  and  plow  out  the  land 
between.  Three  contestants,  one  from  each  of  the  three 
classes,  worked  at  the  same  time,  thus  keeping  up  the 
class  interest.  It  took  the  three  about  an  hour  to  finish, 
then  three  more  began. 

Requirements  of  Contest. — Some  plowmen  seem  to 
think  the  main  thing  in  plowing  is  to  make  the  field 
look  black,  but  in  this  contest  this  was  forgotten.  Each 
contestant  knew  that  to  win  he  must  plow  a  straight 
furrow  of  even  depth  and  width,  and  turn  it  squarely 
over  so  as  to  cover  all  stubble  and  weeds.  He  knew 
that  the  two  headlands  must  be  so  straight  that  they 


S'J 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


would  be  as  far  apart  at  one  place  as  at  another  and  that 
every  furrow  must  be  kept  straight  clear  across  the  field, 
so  that  when  the  land  was  finished  the  last  furrow  would 
be  full  width  and  extend  the  entire  length  of  the  field  as 
shown  in  Fig.  11.  Each  contestant  took  great  pains 
to  start  in  squarely  and  evenly  at  the  ends  and  to  drive 
straight  out  at  the  ends,  for  he  knew  that  his  work  was 
to  be  judged  on  every  point. 


Fig.  11. — Finishing-  the  land.  Lands  must  be  carefully  started  and 
furrows  kept  straight  to  finish  as  shown  here.  When  this  last 
furrow  is  plowed  a  dead  furrow  will  be  formed. 


The  Prizes. — The  first  prize  offered  was  a  sulky  plow, 
the  second  prize  was  $10.00  worth  of  pedigreed  seeds, 
and  the  third  prize  was  $5.00  worth  of  nursery  stock. 

Each  contestant  had  his  mind  set  on  the  sulky  plow 
and  was  determined  to  win  it.  In  this  spirit  the  boys 
went  at  it  with  heart  and  mind  and  skill  and  deter- 
mination, and  they  all  won.  That  is,  they  plowed  their 
best,  and  the  poorest  plowing  done  Avould  be  a  credit 
to  any  farm  and  an  inspiration  to  any  farmer  who  saw  it. 


A  PLOWING   CONTEST.  37 

Spirit  of  Contest. — It  required  all  the  skill  of  the 
plowman  and  the  patience  of  his  team  to  keep  the  plow 
in  place.  Could  he  do  it?  Surely  he  must,  for  dozens 
were  watching  him  and  hoping  that  he  should.  Slowly 
the  team  moved  across  the  field;  and  it  was  with  a  siejh 
of  relief  that  the  spectators  saw  the  last  foot  of  the 
last  furrow  turn  over  in  place.  It  was  with  a  feeling 
of  just  pride  in  a  worthy  task  well  done  that  each  plow- 
man viewed  his  completed  work. 

To  Judge  Plowing. — Good  plowing  means  straight 
furrows  of  uniform  depth  and  width,  no  wider  than 
the  plow  can  cut,  and  turned  squarely  over  so  as  to 
cover  all  weeds  and  stubble.  It  means  starting  square- 
ly at  the  ends,  and  driving  out  straight  at  the  ends,  and 
plowing  out  just  so  far  each  time,  so  the  end  of  the  plow- 
ing is  left  square  and  even.  A  man  who  can  do  such 
plowing  will  never  find  plowing  drudgery,  and  may 
always  be  proud  of  his  profession. 

Questions : 

1.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  skill  required 
to  do  good  plowing? 

2.  What  do  you  consider  to  be  good  plowing? 

3.  Compare  a  plowing  contest  with  a  football  game 
and  with  a  horse  race. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  man  is  plowing  a  square  40-acre  field  in 
lands,  how  many  four-rod  lands  will  there  be? 

2.  In  plowing  a  40-acre  field  in  lands,  how  many 
furrows  will  there  be?    How  many  rounds? 

3.  How  long  will  the  lands  be  on  the  square  40- 
acre  field?  How  many  acres  will  there  be  in  each  land 
four  rods  wide  ? 


CHAPTER  III. 
FARM  SEEDS. 

GOOD   SEED. 

Like  Produces  Like. — Careful  study  of  a  handful  of 
grain  as  it  is  threshed  will  show  that  not  all  of  the 
kernels  are  alike.  Some  will  be  small,  some  large,  some 
shrunken,  and  some  plump. 

It  is  as  important  to  have  good  kernels  of  grain 
from  which  to  raise  a  crop  as  to  have  good  horses,  sheep 
or  cows  from  which  to  raise  colts,  lambs  or  calves. 
One  of  the  laws  of  Nature  which  we  must  consider  in 
raising  plants  and  animals  is  that  "Like  produces  like." 
If  we  want  to  raise  large  horses  we  must  have  large 
horses  from  which  to  raise  them.  If  we  want  to  raise 
dairy  cows  we  must  keep  dairy  cows  or  cows  which 
have  the  ability  to  produce  large  amounts  of  milk.  Like- 
wise, if  we  wish  to  produce  good  plants  we  must  sow 
good  seed. 

Test  of  Good  Seed. — Good  seed  of  any  kind  of  grain 
must  have  at  least  three  qualities: 

First — It  must  be  pure,  that  is,  free  from  weed  and 
other  grain  seed. 

Second — It  must  be  well  matured,  plump  and  heavy. 

Third — It  must  germinate  well  so  as  to  produce 
strong  plants. 

You  will  notice  by  examining  a  small  sample  of  grain 
(place  a  small  sample  on  a  piece  of  w^hite  paper)  that 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  size,  character  and 
shape  of  the  kernels.  (Separate  the  sample  into  good 
and  poor  lots).  Would  you  care  to  plant  the  poor 
seed?  You  might  be  interested  to  plant  ten  of  the  very 
best,  large,  heavy  seeds  and  ten  of  the  poorest,  small, 
light  seeds  in  a  box  of  pure  sand.  Moisten  the  sand 
and  keep  the  box  in  a  warm  room.  See  which  seeds 
produce  the  larger,  stronger  plants. 

Parts  of  a  Seed. — A  seed  is  made  up  of  three  parts. 
See    page    82.      First,    a    small    plantlet    or    germ,    the 


GOOD   SEED. 


39 


embryo,  inside  of  each  kernel  which  will,  when  the  seed 
is  placed  under  favorable  conditions  as  to  heat,  air  and 
moisture,  grow  and  produce  a  plant.  Second,  the  food 
material  stored  about  the  embryo,  to  feed  it  until  it  has 
developed  a  root  system  so  as  to  be  able  to  get  food 
from  the  soil.  Third,  the  seed  coat  on  the  outside  for 
protection. 

It  is  evident  that  a  large,  plump  kernel  or  seed  will 
have  a  stronger,  larger  germ  than  will  a  small  or  shrunk- 
en seed,  and  will  also  have  more  food  for  the  little  plant- 
let,  so  it  will  get  a  better  start  before  it  must  obtain  its 
food  from  the  soil. 

Select  Seed  from  Best  Plants. — ^Another  reason  for 
selecting  the  large,  plump  seeds  is  because  it  is  reason- 
able to  expect  that  they  grew  on  good,  strong,  healthy 
plants.  There  are  a  great  many  unfavorable  conditions 
with  which  plants  have  to  contend,  such  as  diseases  like 

smut,  rust  and  blight; 
unfavorable  weather 
conditions,  as  cold  or 
wet  or  drought  or  heat ; 
also  poor  soil  condi- 
tions. It  is  evident  that 
some  plants  are  better 
able  to  withstand  such 
conditions  than  are  oth- 
ers. Those  that  do  with- 
^,.„    stand  such  unfavorable 

Fie.     12. — Diagram    ot    a    Fanning    Mill,  ,.,.  ,  ,        , 

showing  a  good  method   of  grading  Conditions,  and  are  best 

seed  grain.     The  wind  blast  blows  the  adanted   to  thp  «?oil   and 

lighter  kernels  over  the  end  of  screen  ^^^P^^^  ^^ .^^^\  SOU  ana 

No.   3,   and  they  go  in   with  the  mar-  Climate,     Will     be    likely 

ket  grain.     The  heavy  kernels  fall  on  .         -i       v,^++^^    „^  j    -.„^ 

this  screen.     The  smaller  of  these  go  ^^    CIO     DCtter    aUQ    prO- 

through  the  screen  into  market  grain,  duCC    better    and    morC 

leaving   only   th«   heavy   large   kernels  r?      ^             n     .i                'n 

to  go  into  the  seed  grain.  pcrtcct    SCCd    than    Will 

other  plants.  The  heav- 
iest and  plumpest  seeds  are  selected  when  seeds  from  the 
best  and  most  vigorous  plants  are  secured.  Hence  when 
one  selects  for  seed  the  heavy,  plump  seeds  raised  on  his 


40  AGRICULTURE    FOR    YOUNG     FOLKS. 

farm,  he  not  only  gets  good,  strong  seed,  but  he  gets  seed 
that  is  adapted  to  his  soil  and  climate. 

Heavy  seed  grown  in  some  other  part  of  the  country 
is  usually  heavy  because  it  grew  under  favorable  con- 
ditions rather  than  because  it  came  from  especially 
strong  plants.  For  this  reason  the  heaviest  seed  grown 
on  your  farm  is  often  better  seed  to  sow  than  still 
heavier  seed  from  some  other  locality. 

Questions : 

1.  What  law  of  Nature  must  be  considered  in  rais- 
ing plants  and  animals? 

2.  What  are  the  three  qualities  that  all  good  seed 
must  possess? 

3.  What  two  kinds  of  seed  can  you  usually  find  if 
you  examine  a  good,  pure  sample  of  grain? 

4.  What  are  the  three  parts  of  a  seed,  and  the  purpose 
of  each  part  ? 

5.  Why  is  a  heavy,  plump  seed  better  than  a  small 
or  shrunken  one? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Land  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  seed- 
ed with  heavy,  plump  seed  oats,  yielded  9.5  bu.  per  acre 
more  than  similar  land  seeded  to  light  weight  oats.  What 
was  the  additional  income  per  acre  from  heavy  weight 
seed  if  oats  are  worth  40  cents  per  bu.  ? 

2.  If  2  bushels  of  heavy  seed  oats  (sown  on  one 
acre)  give  an  increased  yield  of  9.5  bushels,  what  will 
be  the  increased  yield  from  one  bushel  of  heavy  weight 
seed  oats? 

3.  If  one  bushel  of  heavy  weight  seed  oats  gives  a 
yield  of  4.5  bushels  more  than  is  secured  from  a  bushel 
of  light  seed,  what  is  the  value  of  one  bushel  of  heavy 
weight  seed  when  oats  are  worth  40  cents  per  bushel? 

Note :  If  the  light  weight  seed  is  worth  40  cents  per 
bushel,  the  heavy  graded  seed  will  be  worth  40  cents 
plus  4.5  times  40  cents. 


SELECTION  OF  SEED.  41 


SELECTION  OF  GOOD  SEED. 


Pure  Seed. — It  is  well  worth  while  for  farmers  to 
raise  only  pure  varieties  of  grain,  or  grain  that  contains 
no  other  kind  or  variety  of  grain.  Seed  of  Blue  Stem 
wheat  should  be  free  from  oats,  rye,  and  barley  as 
well  as  from  other  kinds  of  wheat.  Pure  seed  grain 
may  be  secured  by  purchasing  a  small  amount  of  pure 
seed  and  using  care  in  growing  it  so  it  will  not  become 
mixed;  or,  if  one  prefers  to'  start  with  the  seed  on  the 
farm,  he  may  go  through  a  small  patch  when  it  is  headed 
out  in  the  field  and  pick  out  and  destroy  the  other 
kinds  of  grpin,  thus  getting  a  small  patch  pure,  from 
which  a  start  in  pure  seed  may  be  made. 

As  a  rule  the  very  best  seed  that  one  can  get  for 
the  main  crop  on  his  farm  is  from  grain  that  has  been 
grown  on  the  farm  for  several  years  and  that  has  given 
good  yields.  Such  grain  when  graded  and  cleaned,  so 
only  the  very  best  is  saved  for  seed,  usually  gives  him 
excellent  seed. 

The  two  general  principles  by  which  grain  can  be 
graded,  separated  or  cleaned  of  weed  seeds,  by  the  use 
of  the  fanning  mill,  are  by  size  and  shape  of  kernels  or 
by  weight. 

To  Remove  Weed  Seeds. — Most  weed  seeds  may  be 
removed  from  grain  by  running  the  grain  through  a 
fanning  mill.  The  large  weed  seeds  are  separated  from 
the  grain  by  the  grain  dropping  through  a  sieve  that  is 
too  fine  to  let  the  weed  seeds  through.  The  small  weed 
seeds  are  taken  out  by  running  the  grain  over  a  sieve 
that  is  too  fine  to  let  the  grain  through  but  coarse 
enough  to  let  the  small  weed  seeds  through.  The  weed 
seeds  that  are  lighter  than  the  grain  may  be  blown  out. 
Sometimes  the  light  grains,  like  oats,  may  be  separated 
from  heavy  weed  seeds  by  blowing  the  grain  out  of  the 
weed  seeds. 

There  are  some  weed  seeds,  like  cockle  and  wild  vetch, 
which  are  about  the  same  size  and  weight  as  wheat,  that 
are  very  hard  to  separate  from  that  grain.     While  such 


42  AGRICULTURE   FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

weed  seeds  as  wild  oats  are  very  hard  to  separate  from 
oats  and  barley,  as  the  seeds  are  quite  similar  in  char- 
acter. When  such  weed  seeds  are  present  in  grain  and 
can  not  be  removed  with  a  fanning  mill,  a  small  amount 
of  seed  free  from  such  weed  seeds  may  be  secured  by 
hand  picking  or  by  pulling  the  weed  plants  from  a  small 
plat  of  growing  grain,  thereby  getting  a  start  in  clean 
seed. 

Grading  Seed  Grain. — Many  people  are  satisfied  when 
they  get  pure  and  clean  seed  grain;  but,  if  one  wishes 
to  get  the  best  results  and  maintain  or  improve  his  grain 
from  year  to  year,  it  is  necessary  to  grade  out  and  use 
for  seed  only  the  very  best  individual  seeds  in  the  whole 
amount  grown  on  the  farm.  This  may  be  cheaply  done 
by  grading  the  grain  as  shown  on  page  39.  In  this 
way  the  heavy,  plump  kernels  are  separated  from  the 
smalle;r,  lighter  ones.  The  former  kernels  should  be 
used  for  seed  and  the  latter  sold  or  used  for  feed. 

Germination. — It  is  as  important  that  seed  grain 
germinates  (starts  to  grow)  well  as  that  seed  corn  ger- 
minates well.  It  is  a 
very  simple  matter  to 
test  seed  grain  for 
germination,  and  this 
should  always  be  done 
before  it  is  planted.  A 
good  germinator  is 
made  as  follows : 
^%^''^e^  iSrn'^  ^^ilT'i'oT/r  '^1.1!%  Partly  fill  a  plate  with 

partly     filled     with     sand,     the     grain  sawdust  Or  sand,   COV- 
placed   between   the   cloths   on   top   of  ,    •+>,  „  n^r^+\^    ov,r1  ^^r^ 

the    sand   and    all   covered   by   an    in-  er  With  a  ClOtn,  ancl  On 

verted  plate.     If  kept  moist  and  in  a  fhiv^    ^pflffpr    r\r\(^    Vinn 

warm  room,  good  seed  will  germinate  \^^^^  SCaXtCr    one    UUn- 

in  from  5  to  7  days.  drcd      secds.  Covcr 

with  another  cloth, 
moisten,  and  cover  all  with  an  inverted  plate.  See  Fig.  18. 
Good  seed  in  such  a  germinator,  kept  moist  and  in  a  warm 
room,  as  a  living  room  or  school  house,  for  from  five  to  sevr 
en  days,  will  sprout.    The  number  out  of  the  one  hundred 


WEED   SEEDS  COMMON  TO  GRAIN.  43 

I 

that  start  to  grow  vigorously  in  that  length  of  time  will 
represent  the  percent  of  the  seed  that  will  be  likely  to 
grow  in  the  field.     It  will  pay  to  try  this  with  several 
different  kinds  of  grain. 
Questions : 

1.  From  what  source  is  one  most  likely  to  get  good 
seed  grain  for  most  of  his  planting?     Why? 

2.  In  what  ways  may  weed"  seeds  be  separated 
from  seed  grain? 

3.  By  what  method  can  one  cheaply  separate  the 
large,  plump  kernels  of  grain  from  the  small  and  light 
kernels? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Two  men  can  clean  and  grade  with  a  fanning 
mill  20  bu.  of  grain  in  an  hour.  If  the  best  30  per 
cent  is  saved  for  seed,  how  many  bushels  of  seed  will 
be  secured?  How  much  will  it  cost  per  bu.  to  save 
seed  in  this  manner  if  each  man's  time  is  worth  15c 
per  hour? 

2.  If  it  costs  5  cts.  per  bu.  to  grade  out  the  best 
seed  and  it  requires  two  bushels  of  seed  to  seed  an 
acre,  how  much  must  the  yield  be  increased  per  acre 
to  pay  for  the  extra  cost  of  grading  the  seed  if  oats 
are  worth  40  cts.  per  bu.? 

3.  If  one  seeds  50  acres  to  grain  that  germinates 
but  80  per  cent,  how  many  acres  are  seeded  to  grain 
that  will  not  grow? 

WEED   SEEDS  COMMON    IN   GRAIN. 

Loss  Caused  By  Weeds. — ^When  a  farmer  sows  a  field 
of  grain  he  hopes  to  secure  a  large  harvest.  He  may  not 
stop  to  think,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that  every  weed 
which  grows  in  his  field  helps  to  decrease  his  yield,. 
Weeds  injure  a  crop  by  using  the  plant  food  and  mois- 
ture in  the  soil  which  should  go  to  produce  the  desired 
crop;  by  shading  the  smaller  grain  plants  and  crowd- 
ing them  out;  by  increasing  the  cost  of  harvesting  the 
grain  through  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  twine  need- 


44  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

ed  and  the  amount  of  labor  required  to  shock,  stack 
and  thresh  the  crop;  and  by  depositing  their  seeds  in 
the  grain,  thereby  increasing  the  cost  of  marketing  the 
product  and  at  the  same  time  reducing  its  market  value. 

Clean  Seed  Grain. — However  careful  a  farmer  may 
be  and  has  been  for  several  years,  some  weeds  are 
bound  to  spring  up  and  grow  from  roots  or  from  seeds 

which  have  lain  dor- 
mant in  the  soil  for  a 
year,  or  perhaps  longer, 
until  recent  plowing  or 
harrowing  has  placed 
them  where  they  can 
grow.  But  many  farm- 
ers increase  the  amount 
of  weeds  in  their  fields, 
and      often     introduce 

Fig.   14. — Seeds    of    (1)    Wild    Pea    or       riPAxr    sjnrl    huf]    vnripfiPQ 

Vetch;      (2)     Wild     Buckwheat;     ncw  ana   DaQ  varieties 

(3)     Ragweed    or    King-head;      (4)       by      buymg      Or      USlUg 

^°""^°^^'^-  seed    grain    that    con- 

tains these  weed  seeds.  The  weeds  in  each  year's  crop 
may  be  lessened  noticeably  by  sowing  only  grain  free  of 
weed  seeds. 

Farmers  should  be  able  to  recognize  the  w^eed  seeds 
found  in  grain,  so  that  they  may  not  buy  and  use  seed 
grain  that  contains  seeds  of  dangerous  weeds. 

Description. — ^Below  is  given  a  brief  description  of 
five  kinds  of  weed  seeds  most  commonly  found  in  grain : 

Corn  Cockle  or  Blue  Cockle. — A  rough,  black,  some- 
what triangular  seed,  about  as  large  and  heavy  as  a  ker- 
nel of  wheat.  It  is  common  in  seed  wheat  as  it  is  hard 
to  separate  these  seeds  from  the  grain.    See  Fig.  14. 

Ragweed  or  Kinghead. — A  dark  brown  heavy  seed. 
The  seeds  vary  in  size  from  slightly  smaller  to  consid- 
erably larger  than  a  kernel  of  wheat.  They  are  easily 
recognized  by  the  crown-like  appearance  of  the  tip.  The 
seed  is  smaller  at  the  base,  with  several  ribs  extending 
lengthwise  and  terminating  in  as  many  points  around  a 


WEED  SEEDS   COMMON  TO   GRAIN. 


45 


Fig-.   15.— Seeds  of   (1)  Wild  Oats; 
Tame   Oats. 


(2) 


central  point  in  the  tip,  giving  it  the  crown-like  appear- 
ance mentioned.  It  is  common  in  grain  in  the  Red  River 
Valley.     See  Fig.  14. 

Wild  Oats  may  be 
distinguished  from 
common  white  oats 
by  the  following 
points:  Wild  oats  are 
darker  in  color,  are 
more  slender,  have  a 
small  tuft  of  hair  at 
the  base  and  have  a 
long,  crooked  awn. 
This  awn  is  not  always 
a  safe  guide,  as  it  is 
often  broken  off  in 
the  threshing  ma- 
chine. It  is  very  com- 
mon in  grain  throughout  the  state.     See  Fig.  15. 

Wild  Buckwheat  is  a  black,  three-sided  seed.  Often 
found  covered  with  a  brown  husk.  It  is  nearly  the  size 
of  a  kernel  of  wheat,  and  common  in  grain  grown  on  old 
fields.     See  Fig.  14. 

Wild  Pea  or  Vetch. — A  heavy,  dark  brown  or  gray 
seed,  round  in  shape  and  about  the  size  of,  or  a  little 
larger  than,  a  kernel  of  wheat.  It  closely  resembles  in 
shape  the  common  garden  pea,  and  is  easily  split  in 
halves  the  same  as  a  pea  or  a  bean.  It  is  quite  common 
in  grain.     See  Fig.  14. 

Much  more  will  be  learned  about  the  above  weeds 
if  samples  of  grain  are  examined  and  specimens  of  weed 
seeds  of  each  variety  discussed  are  found  and  studied. 
Questions : 

1.  In  what  four  ways  do  weeds  injure  field  crops? 

2.  Tell  at  least  two  ways  in  which  weeds  get  into 
fields. 

^.     Describe  each  weed  seed  we  have  studied. 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  farmer  sows  a  50  acre  field  of  grain  with  seed 
containing  3%  weed  seed,  how  much  land  will  he  sow  to 


46 


AGRICULTURE  FOR   YOUNG  FOLKS. 


weeds?     How  much  will  he  lose  if  his  grain  yields  $15.00 
worth  of  product  per  acre? 

2.  If  10  per  cent  of  the  crop  in  a  field  is  weeds,  and 
it  requires  4  lbs.  of  twine  per  acre,  costing  15  cents  per 
pound,  to  bind  the  crop,  how  much  does  it  cost  per  acre 
for  twine  to  tie  up  the  weeds? 

3.  A  farmer  has  1,000  bu.  of  oats  threshed ;  4  lbs.  in 
each  bu.  is  weed  seed.  What  per  cent  of  his  crop  is 
weeds  ?    How  many  pounds  of  weed  seed  has  he  ? 


WEED  SEEDS  COMMON    IN    GRASS  AND  CLOVER   SEED. 

Pure  Seed. — Sowing  grass  and  clover  seed  that  is  not 

pure  is  one  of  the  most  common  ways  of  getting  bad 

weeds  into  the  land. 

Grass  seeds  are  so  small  that  many  weed  seeds  may 

be  mixed  with  them  and  not  be  noticed  unless  one  is 

p  e  r  f  e  ctly  familiar 
with  both  the  grass 
seeds  and  the  more 
common  weed  seeds. 
Where  there  is  a 
good  stand  of  grass 
or  clover  there  is 
very  little  chance  for 
weeds  to  grow.  In 
a  poor  stand — per- 
haps the  result  of 
sowing  poor  seed,  or 
of  sowing  on  poor 
soil,  or  of  winter  kill- 
ings— weeds  are  very 
likely  to  spring  up 
and  make  a  good 
growth  and  their 
seed  to  be  mixed  with 

the  grass  seed  at  harvest  time. 

Hay  a  Cleaning  Crop. — If  a  grass  crop  is  cut  for  hay, 

the  weeds  growing  in  it  are,  as  a  rule,  cut  before  they 


Fig.  16. — Seeds  of  (1)  Quack  Grass,  single; 
(2)  Quack  Grass  with  two  or  more  seeds 
as  they  grew.  They  were  not  separated 
when  shelled.  They  often  appear  to- 
gether in  this  manner.  (3)  Pigeon 
Grass. 


WEED  SEEDS  COMMON  IN  GRASS  AND  CLOVER  SEED.       47 

have  had  time  to  ripen  seeds.     For  this  reason  the  hay 
crop  is  considered  a  cleaning  crop. 

Hay  with  weeds  in  it  is  very  inferior  in  quality,  and 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  get  such  a  good  stand  of 
grass  as  to  prevent  weeds  from  growing  with  it.  The 
first  step  in  getting  a  good  stand  of  grass  is  to  sow  good 
clean  seed  that  will  grow.  If  the  grass  seed  we  sow  con- 
tains weed  seeds,  we  not  only  sow  the  undesirable  weed 
seeds,  but  also  sow  less  grass  seed,  hence  get  a  poorer 
stand. 

Description. — Below  is  given  a  brief  description  of 
four  kinds  of  weed  seeds  most  common  in  grass  seed. 

Pigeon  Grass  is  about  one-fourth  as  large  as  a  grain 
of  wheat.  It  varies  in  color  from  nearly  light  yellow  to 
light  green,  and  has  one  flat  surface.  In  shape  it  is  simi- 
lar to  half  a  bean.  It  is  common  in  grain  and  in  grass 
seed. 

Mustard  seeds  are 
smaller  than  a  pinhead, 
almost  perfectly  round, 
and  dark  brown  to 
nearly  black  in  color. 
They  resemble  rutar 
baga  seeds  and  are 
easily  identified  b  y 
tasting,  as  they  have  a 

Fig.   17.— Seeds  of   (1)   Pig-weed;     (2)       o>,arn    «?nif»v  tfl«itp    Aln^j 
Wild  Mustard  enlarged.  snarp,  spicy  laste.  ^MUS- 

tard    seed    is    common 
both  in  grain  and  in  grass  seed.     See  Fig.  17. 

Pigweed. — The  seeds  of  pigweed  are  smnll,  shiny  and 
black.  They  are  half  the  size  and  about  the  shape  of 
a  common  pin  head.  They  are  commonly  found  in  grain 
and  in  grass  seed.     (See  Fig.  17.) 

Quack  Grass. — Seeds  are  slender,  light  in  weight, 
somewhat  the  shape  of  oats,  but  only  about  one-half 
as  long.    They  are  green  or  light  yellow  in  color.    Some- 


48  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

times  two  or  more  seeds  are  joined  together.  They  may 
be  found  in  grain  or  in  grass  seed,  especially  in  bromus. 
Quack  grass  seed  is  a  little  heavier,  smoother,  and  more 
yellowish  in  color  than  bromus  seed. 

We  suggest  that  our  readers  examine  carefully  sev- 
eral samples  of  grass  seed  found  in  the  neighborhood. 
First  to  become  familiar  with  common  grass  seeds ;  as  red 
and  alsike  clover,  timothy,  alfalfa,  and  bromus ;  and  also 
to  learn  to  identify  the  weed  seeds  mentioned  above, 
and  to  readily  observe  and  know  them  when  seen  in  a 
sample  of  grass  seed. 

Questions : 

1.  What  is  a  very  common  way  of  getting  weeds  on 
a  farm  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  easier  to  get  bad  weed  seeds  in  grass 
seed  than  in  seed  grain? 

3.  For  what  reason  is  a  hay  crop  considered  a  clean- 
ing crop? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  bushel  of  timothy  seed  weighs  45  lbs.  What 
is  it  worth  at  5c.  per  lb.  ? 

2.  A  bushel  of  clover  seed  weighs  60  lbs.  What  is 
it  worth  at  15c.  per  lb.  ? 

3.  There  are  32  quarts  in  a  bushel.  Clover  seed 
weighs  60  lbs.  per  bushel.  What  does  one  quart  weigh? 
Timothy  seed  weighs  45  lbs.  per  bushel.  What  does  one 
quart  weigh? 

4.  If  a  farmer  seeded  10  acres  of  land  with  grass 
seed  containing  10  per  cent,  weed  seeds,  how  much  land 
would  he  sow  to  weeds? 


CHAPTER  IV. 
COMMON  WEEDS  AND  THEIR  ERADICATION. 

WEEDS. 

A  Weed  is  any  plant  out  of  place.  For  example,  rye 
growing  in  a  wheat  field  or  any  grain  plant  growing 
in  a  corn  field  is  as  much  a  weed  as  is  pigeon  grass. 
But  we  commonly  think  of  weeds  as  undesirable  plants 
that  are  found  in  our  fields,  meadows  and  pastures,  such 
as  mustard,  thistle,  etc. 

Weeds  are  Harmful  in  many  ways.  As  we  have  learn- 
ed in  the  previous  lesson,  they  use  moisture  and  plant 
food  that  are  needed  by  the  useful  crops.  They  shade 
or  crowd  out  other  plants.  They  greatly  increase  the 
cost  of  growing  crops.  They  increase  the  cost  of  harv-. 
csting,  by  requiring  more  twine  and  by  making  more  bulk 
to  handle.  They  decrease  the  quality  of  grain  and  in- 
crease materially  the  cost  of  marketing. 

There  is  no  accurate  way  of  estimating  the  loss  caused 
by  weeds,  but  it  is  very  great.  Weeds  cost  many  times 
as  much  as  do  all  of  the  schools  in  the  country. 

One  of  the  great  problems  of  farming  is  the  control 
of  weeds,  and  no  farmer  can  make  much  of  a  success  of 
his  business  until  he  learns  how  to  effectively  fight  weeds. 

Weeds  Get  Into  Fields  in  a  great  many  different  ways. 
Some  weed  seeds  remain  in  the  soil  for  several  years,  and 
still  retain  sufficient  vitality  to  grow  when  given  favor- 
able opportunity.  Weed  seeds  are  carried  into  fields  by 
water,  by  wind,  by  l>irds,  by  animals,  by  machinery,  or 
sometimes  in  the  seed  grain  or  in  the  grass  seed. 

There  are  no  very  easy  ways  of  controlling  weeds, 
but  the  first  essential  of  success  is  to  know  the  common 
weeds  and  their  habits.  Then  one  may  discover  the 
measures  necessary  for  their  eradication. 

There  are  not  a  great  many  different  weeds  that  are 
very  troublesome,  and  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  be- 
come so  familiar  with  most  of  the  common  ones  as  to  rec- 


50 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


ognize  them  when  seen,  either  as  seeds  or  as  young  or  ma- 
ture plants. 

Specimens. — It  may  prove  an  interesting  and  profitable 
pastime,  at  the  proper  season  of  the  year,  to  gather  speci- 
mens of  all  the  weeds  that  you  commonly  find  in  your 
fields,  to  observe  them  carefully  and  try  to  find  some 
characteristic  by  which  you  can  identify  each  kind.  You 
may  desire  to  press,  mount  and  name  these  specimens. 


Fig.  18. — Yellow  Mustard,  showing  tap  root,  hairy  stem  and  (1) 
the  seed  pod  split  open;  (2)  the  blossom,  showing  arrangement 
of  the  4  petals  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  from  which  this  family 
of  plants  gets  its  name  — Cruciferae;    (3)  Seeds. 

Mounting  Weeds. — Select  two  or  three  plants  that 
represent  their  class,  ;md  dig  them  up  in  such  a  way  as 
to  show  the  root,  the  leaves,  the  stem,  and  if  possible  the 
blossoms.  Lay  or  hang  them  in  the  shade  until  well  wilt- 
ed but  not  dry.  Then  spread  out  the  parts  carefully,  to 
show  each  plainly.  Lay  the  plants  between  a  couple  of 
sheets  of  blotting  paper,  if  you  have  them ;  if  not,  put  the 
plants  between  newspapers,  and  put  heavy  weights  on 


COMMON   WEEDS  AND   THEIR  ERADICATION.  51 

them.  Change  the  papers  often  until  the  plants  are  dry, 
to  prevent  them  from  moulding.  When  dry,  mount  them 
on  a  piece  of  white  paper  by  pasting  over  the  stem  and 
branches,  and  upon  the  paper  at  several  places,  little  strips 
of  paper,  with  mucilage  or  paste  on  one  side.  Plants  care- 
fully mounted  will  be  of  great  value  for  use  in  identifying 
weeds  later. 

Value  of  Collection. — ^HandMng  plants  so  thoroughly 
and  carefully,  as  is  necessary  to  gather  and  mount  them, 
makes  one  quite  familiar  with  them.  You  may  be  sure 
your  teacher  would  appreciate  such  a  collection  of  weeds 
foi^  use  in  the  school  room,  especially  if  they  are  named. 
If  you  do  not  know  the  name  of  some  weed,  and  cannot 
find  out  in  your  neighborhood,  get  as  near  a  perfect  speci- 
men of  the  plant  as  you  can  (being  sure  to  get  the  roots, 
stem,  leaves  and  if  possible  the  flowers  or  head)  and  send 
it  to  your  State  Experiment  Station,  and  it  will  be  named 
for  you.  If  you  have  ever  studied  botany  or  ever  expect 
to,  you  will  find  your  work  with  weeds  of  great  value. 

It  is  hoped  that  every  reader  will  examine  carefully 
the  weeds  commonly  found  in  his  locality,  until  he  can 
recognize  them  all  at  sight. 

Classes  of  Weeds. — If  the  habits  of  weeds  are  studied 
it  will  be  found  that  all  wejeds  may  be  placed  under  the 
three  classes,  Annuals — those  that  live  but  one  year — 
Biennials — those  that  live  two  years — and  Perennials — 
those  that  live  from  year  to  year. 
Questions : 

1.  What  is  a  weed  ? 

2.  What  do  we  commonly  think  of  as  weeds? 

3.  How  are  weeds  harmful  ? 

4.  How  great  is  the  loss  caused  by  weeds  ? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  field  of  wheat  yielding  18  bu.  per  acre  were 
injured  10  per  cent,  by  weeds,  how  much  would  it  have 
yielded  had  it  been  free  of  weeds? 

2.  If  a  boy  can  pull  the  mustard  in  an  acre  of  grain 
in  two  days,  what  does  the  mustard  cost  the  farmer  if 
the  boy's  time  is  worth  60  cts.  per  day? 


52  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

3.  If  a  man  spends  an  hour  cleaning  enough  seed 
grain  for  two  acres,  how  much  will  it  cost  him  per  acre  if 
his  time  is  worth  14  cts.  per  hour  ? 

ANNUAL   WEEDS. 

Definitioii. — Annual  weeds  are  those  that  produce 
seeds  in  one  year  and  die.  In  this  class  we  find  such 
common  weeds  as  pigeon  grass,  lambs'  quarter,  wild  oats, 
wild  barley,  mustard,  corn  cockle,  wild  buckwheat,  cockle 
burr,  French  weed,  rag  weed,  etc. 

Pigeon  Grass  or  Foxtail. — Of  all  the  weeds  pigeon 
grass  is  probably  the  most  common.  It  is  an  annual  and 
readily  recognized  by  every  one.  It  is  very  troublesome, 
especially  on  poor  soil  where  crops  do  not  make  heavy 
growths.  It  is  very  likely  to  grow  up  quite  thickly  and 
produce  a  great  deal  of  seed  in  the  corn  field  after  culti- 
vation has  ceased.  It  is  well  to  plant  some  other  crop,  as 
rape,  grain  or  clover,  just  before  the  last  cultivation  of 
corn.  This  seed,  covered  by  the  cultivator,  will  make 
quite  a  rapid  growth  in  the  corn  and  help  to  hold  back 
the  pigeon  grass  and  other  weeds. 

Mustard. — Yellow  or  black  mustard  is  an  annual  weed 
very  common  in  grain  fields.  It  is  readily  recognized  by 
the  yellow  blossoms  with  four  petals  (the  yellow  part  of 
the  mustard  blossom),  as  most  flowers  have  more  than 
four  petals,  or  it  may  be  recognized  by  its  round  black 
seed. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  mustard,  but  the  variety 
mentioned  is  by  far  the  most  common.  Thonsands  of 
acres  of  grain  fields  are  yellow  with  mustard  in  June. 

Mustard  is  hard  to  get  rid  of,  as  the  seed  may  live  for 
five  or  more  years  in  the  soil  and  still  grow  when  brousfht 
near  enough  to  the  surface.  The  plants  have  the  ability 
to  send  out  branches  that  produce  seed,  and  if  the  main 
stem  is  cut  off  by  the  mower  or  binder  these  side  branches 
grow  out  quickly  and  produce  seed.  On  this  account,  if 
a  grain  field  is  infested  with  mustard  it  is  very  hard  to 
prevent  mustard  seed  from  being  formed  and  left  in  the 


ANNUAL  WEEDS. 


53 


soil,  for  if  the  plants  do  not  succeed  in  ripening  seed  be- 
fore the  grain  is  cut  (they  usually  do,  however),  these 
lateral  branches  will  produce  enough  seed  after  the  grain 
is  cut  to  badly  infest  the  soil. 

Spraying  Weeds. — Mustard  may  be  destroyed  in  grain 
fields,  without  injury  to  the  grain,  by  spraying  with  a  3 
per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulphate  or  with  a  20  per  cent 
solution  of  iron  sulphate.  Iro'n  sulphate  is  the  cheaper 
chemical  and  is  more  commonly  used.  It  is  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  wire,  and  can  be  purchased  at  from 
$12.00  to  $20.00  per  ton.    It  usually  comes  in  100-lb.  sacks. 


Fig-.  19. — A  large  20-foot  spraying  macliine  with  160-gallon  tank, 
showing-  the  misty,  fog-like  spray  that  is  essential  to  best  results 
in  spraying. 

100  lbs.  of  iron  sulphate  dissolved  in  a  barrel  (50  gal.) 
of  water  make  a  20  per  cent  solution,  and  the  50  gallons 
axe  sufficient  to  spray  one  acre.  Mustard  should  be  spray- 
ed before  it  forms  pods.  The  smaller  the  plants,  the 
easier  they  are  killed. 

Spraying  Machines  are  offered  for  sale  at  from  $60 
to  $150.  They  will  spray  a  strip  of  land  from  16  ft.  to 
24  ft.  wide.  They  have  a  tank  holding  from  50  to  240 
gallons  of  water,  mounted  on  two  wheels,  and  a  force 


54  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

pump  run  by  the  traction  of  the  wheels.  Sufficient  pres- 
sui^e  must  be  obtained  to  force  the  solution  through  fine 
nozzles,  to  make  a  misty,  fog-like  spray  that  settles  on 
the  leaves  without  falling  to  the  ground.  Ijarge  fields 
badly  infested  with  mustard  have  been  slprayed  and  90 
to  95  per  cent  of  the  mustard  destroyed,  at  a  cost  of  60 
cents  to  75  cents,  per  acre  for  material  and  15  cents  to  25 
cents  per  acre  for  labor.  French-weed  and  rag-weed 
were  injured  by  this  treatment,  but  not  enough  to  pre- 
vent them  from  seeding.  Canada  thistles  were  injured, 
but  grew  up  from  the  roots  again.  Sow  thistles,  wild 
oats  and  quack  grass  are  uninjured  by  this  treatment. 
The  above  treatment  is  very  helpful  in  controlling 
mustard  on  grain  farms,  but  on  diversified  farms  it  is 
more  cheaply  and  effectively  destroyed  by  a  proper  rota- 
tion of  crops. 

Questions : 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  Annual 
weeds  ? 

2.  Describe  yellow  mustard  and  tell  what  you  know 
about  it. 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  about  destroying  mustard  by 
spraying. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  What  is  the  cost  of  100  lbs.  of  iron  sulphate  at 
$15.00  per  ton? 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  water  in  50  gal.  ?  A  gal.  of 
water  weighs  approximately  8  pounds. 

3.  If  100  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  iron  is  added  to  50  gal. 
of  water,  what  proportion  is  sulphate  of  iron  ?  What  per 
cent? 

4.  If  a  team  travels  12  miles  in  a  day  with  a  machine 
spraying  a  strip  16  ft.  wide,  how  much  will  they  spray 
in  a  day?  What  will  be  the  cost  per  acre  for  labor  if 
the  man,  team  and  machine  are  worth  $5.00  per  day? 


MORE  ANNUAL  WEEDS.  55 

MORE  ANNUAL  WEEDS. 

Wild  Oats. — Probably  one  of  the  most  trouble- 
some of  the  annual  weeds  is  wild  oats.  It  is  common 
in  most  grain-growing  sections.  It  is  easily  distinguished 
from  tame  oats,  when  growing,  by  the  spreading  panicle 
01^  head,  and  when  ripe,  by  the  seeds,  which  have  long 
awns  and  a  tuft  of  fine  hair  at  the  base  of  each.  Examine 
carefully  a  plant  of  wild  oats,  comparing  it  with  tame 
oats  until  you  have  no  difficulty  in  telling  one  from  the- 
other. 

Wild  oats  ripens  earlier  than  do  most  of  the  grain 
crops,  and  the  seeds  shell  off  upon  the  ground  before  the 
grain  is  cut.  In  this  way  seed  is  left  in  the  ground  from 
year  to  year.  The  seed  may  live  in  the  ground  from 
two  to  four  years  and  still  grow.  So  if  wild  oats  gets 
a  start  in  a  field  it  is  practically  impossible  to  get  it  out 
if  grain  is  grown  year  after  year. 

To  Eradicate  Wild  Oats  raise  corn  occasionally,  so  that 
the  wild  oats  will  be  killed  by  cultivation,  and  seed 
the  land  to  grass  for  a  year  or  so  every  three  to  six  years. 
The  hay  crop  is  cut  early  in  the  season  before  the  wild 
oats  ripen,  then  again  later  in  the  season  before  a  second 
crop  of  the  oats  can  ripen,  thus  preventing  them  from 
seeding.  If  a  field  is  left  two  years  in  grass,  then  planted 
to  corn  and  well  cultivated,  it  should  be  comparatively 
free  from  wild  oats.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to 
sow  seed  free  from  wild^  oats.  With  a  good  fanning  mill 
wild  oats  can  be  cleaned  out  of  wheat  or  flax  quite 
thoroughly,  but  it  is  quite  hard  to  separate  them  from 
oats  and  barley;  and,  if  the  farm  is  badly  infested  with 
wild  oats  and  an  attempt  is  being  made  to  clean  it,  it 
will  be  well  to  get  seed  barley  and  oats  from  a  clean  farm 
rather  than  to  depend  on  cleaning  seed  that  has  wild 
oats  in  it. 

Wild  Barley,  or  squirrel  tail,  is  also  a  very  common 
and  extremely  troublesome  annual  weed.  It  is  a  fine 
grass-like  plant  and  usually  grows  in  bunches  along  road 
sides,  in  old  meadows  and  pastures,  and  in  any  sod  land 


56 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


where  a  heavy  growth  of  other  grasses  is  not  found.  It 
does  not  grow  so  high  as  tame  barley  or  wheat,  and  is 
easily  recognized  by  the  soft  drooping  heads  with  ex- 
ceedingly long  awns  or  beards.  Handle  a  plant  of  wild 
barley  and  compare  it  carefully  with  tame  baJrley  and 
with  pigeon  grass. 

The  plants  head 
very  early  in  the  sea- 
son (in  May  or  early 
in  June)  and  ripen 
seeds  very  early.  It 
is  such  a  soft  plant 
and  leans  over  so 
much  that  it  is  very 
hard  to  mow  it  close 
enough  to  the  ground 
to  get  all  the  heads. 
Hence  it  is  practical- 
ly impossible  to  mow 
it  close  enough,  eithe]* 
with  a  scythe  or  mow- 
er, to  prevent  its  seed- 
ing. It  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  common  in  cultivated  fields,  as  in  grain  or  corn,  but  is 
very  troublesome  in  old  meadows  and  pastures. 
In  meadows  it  is  undesirable,  as  it  is  fully  ripe  by  the 
time  the  hay  is  cut;  and  later,  when  the  hay  is  fed,  the 
awns  of  the  Avild  barley  work  into  the  mouths  of  cattle 
and  horses  and  often  cause  sores. 

To  Eradicate  Wild  Barley,  meadows  and  pastures 
should  be  broken  up  and  planted  to  com  or  grain  for  two 
or  three  years,  then  reseeded.  If  such  places  cannot  be 
broken  up,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  wild  barley  from  seeding.  Then  try  to 
thicken  up  the  stand  of  desirable  grasses  by  loosening 
the  soil  with  a  harrow,  top  dressing  it  and  sowing  in  such 
grass  seeds  as  clover,  blue  grass  or  bromus.     If  a  good 


Fig.  20. — Wild  Barley  or  Squirrel  Tail. 
Notice  the  soft,  fine  stem  and  soft, 
drooping  heads  with  long  awns. 


MORE  ANNTAL  WEEDS.  57 

stand  of  these  grasses  can  be  secured  they  will  crowd  out 
the  wild  barley. 

Wild  Buckwheat  or  bind  weed  is  likewise  a  very  com- 
mon weed.  It  starts  very  early  in  the  spring  and  where 
it  is  thick  it  practically  chokes  out  the  grain  crop.  It  is  a 
twining  plant,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  and  when  it  twines 
about  grain  plants  they  have  a  poor  chance  to  grow.  It  is 
not  generally  troublesome  except  in  grain  fields.  Hunt 
up  some  of  these  plants  and  examine  them  until  you  are 
sure  you  know  them  or  any  part  of  them.  Find  a  morn- 
ing glorv  vine  and  compare  it  with  the  wild  buckwheat. 
(See  Fig.  21.) 

To  Eradicate. — The  weed  is  quite  easily  killed  out  of  a 
field  by  growing  cultivated  crops,  as  com,  and  cultivating 
thoroughly ;  by  growing  grass  crops,  which  give  the  buck- 
wheat very  little  chance  to  grow  and  no  chance  to  seed, 
and  by  using  clean  seed.  The  seeds  of  buckwheat  are 
nearly  as  large  as  kernels  of  wheat,  and  it  is  quite  difficult 
to  separate  them  from  seed  grain,  but  it  can  be  done  by  a 
good  fanning  mill  well  operated. 

Questions : 

1.  How  can  one  tell  wild  oats  from  tame  oats? 

2.  Why  does  the  hay  crop  check  wild  oats? 

3.  Where  are  the  most  likely  places  for  Avild  barley 
to  grow  ? 

4.  How  may  one  exterminate  wild  barley? 

5.  How  does  wild  buckwheat  injure  a  grain  plant? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  farmer  raises  38  acres  of  wheat  which  yields 
181,^  bu.  per  acre,  and  is  docked  5  pounds  per  bu.  for  weed 
seeds,  how  many  pounds  is  he  docked  ?  How  much  would 
this  dockage  be  worth  at  70c  per  bu.  if  pure  wheat? 

2.  Because  of  weeds,  1  pound  more  twine  at  lie  per 
pound,  is  required  to  tie  up  an  acre  of  wheat,  1  hour  more 
labor  worth  14c  is  required  to  shock  and  stack  it.  The 
yield  is  reduced  2  bu.  per  acre  on  account  of  weeds.  What 
is  the  loss  per  acre  ?  Per  100  acres  ?  Wheat  is  worth  70c 
per  bu. 


58  AGFtlCULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

ERADICATION    OF   ANNUAL   WEEDS. 

Clean  Seed. — Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in  clean- 
ing any  seed  grain.  It  is  often  the  opinion  that  just  a  few 
weed  seeds  can  do  no  harm,  but  weeds  in  a  grain  field  are 
nearly  as  bad  as  wolves  in  a  flock  of  sheep.  With  a  good 
fanning  mill  practically  all  of  the  weed  seeds  can  be  clean- 
ed out  of  seed  grain.  If  there  are  weed  seeds  in  your 
grain  that  cannot  be  cleaned  out  do  not  use  it.  Get  seed 
that  is  clean. 

Keep  Weeds  off  the  Farm. — Sometimes  threshing  ma- 
chines that  have  been  used  on  farms  badly  infested  with 
weeds  mavy  carry  weeds  onto  the  next  farm.  This  dif- 
ficulty ca,n  be  overcome  by  insisting  that  the  threshing 
machine  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  it  is  allowd  to  move 
from  a  weedy  farm  onto  yours.  If  feed  containing  such 
weed  seeds  as  wild  oats'  and  mustard  is  fed  to  work  horses 
without  grinding  there  is  danger  of  getting  weeds  onto 
the  farm,  as  some  of  these  seeds  may  pass  through  the  di- 
gestive tract  of  a  horse  and  be  uninjured.  Thus  they 
may  get  into  a  field  in  the  droppings  from  the  horse. 

Hauling  straw  or  hay  from  a  weedy  farm  is  likewise 
dangerous,  and  many  bad  weeds  are  often  obtained  in 
that  way.  Running  water  may  also  carry  weed  seeds  on- 
to the  farm.  This  can  hardly  be  prevented,  but  if  the 
water  is  made  to  run  in  ditches  instead  of  spreading  out 
over  a  large  surface,  weeds  that  may  come  are  much 
more  easily  controlled. 

Prevent  Weeds  From  Seeding. — Annual  plants  live 
but  one  year,  so  if  one  can  keep  them  from  seeding  he  can 
soon  have  his  field  clean,  as  the  seeds  in  the  soil  will  ei- 
ther germinate  and  be  killed  or  spoil  in  the  ground  in  a 
very  few  years.  To  prevent  weeds  seeding  is  more  eas- 
ily mid  than  done.  Yet  diligent  effort  and  a  good  plan 
of  attack  usually  bring  success.  There  are  a  great  many 
ways  of  attacking  weeds,  and  a  few  of  them  will  be  brief- 
ly mentioned  below. 

A  Good  Rotation  of  Crops  affords  the  very  best  remedy 
for  controlling  annual  weeds.     Rotation  of  crops  means 


ERADICATION  OF  ANNUAL  WEEDS. 


59 


the  changing  of  the  grain  crops  and  meadow  and  pas- 
ture crops'  and  the  cultivated  crops,  so  that  each  kind 
of  crop  is  grown  on  each  field  one  or  more  times  in  three- 
to  seven  or  eight  years.  The  meadows  and  pastures  de-* 
stroy  weeds  because  the  crops  are  cut  or  fed  off  before 
the  weeds  have  a  chance  to  seed,  and  the  grass  is  usually 

so  thick  that  the  weeds 
haye  but  little  chance 
to  grow  in  it.  This  is 
not  true  if  pastures  or 
meadows  are  left  in 
one  place  for  a  long 
time,  as  the  stand  of 
grass  is  likely  to  get 
thin  in  places  and  give 
the  weeds  a  chance.  It 
is  usually  unprofitable 
to  leave  fields  in  mead- 
ow or  pasture  for  more 
than  three  years  at  a 
time.  Cultivated  crops 
in  a  rotation  are  very 
beneficial  in  destroying 
weeds.  Weed  seeds  will 
not  grow  unless  they 
have  the  right  condi- 
tions, that  is,  have  heat, 
air  and  moisture.  If 
they  are  buried  too  deep 
they  may  lack  either  heat 
or  air,  and  if  too  near  the  surface  they  may  be  too  dry. 
F'requent  cultivation  of  the  soil  not  only  kills  tlie  weeds 
that  have  started  tc  grow,  but  also  covers  up  weed  seeds 
that  are  too  near  the  surface  to  germinate  and  turns  up 
others  that  are  too  deep,  so  it  gets  more  seeds  where 
they  will  grow  and  be  killed  by  the  next  cultivation. 
Watch  a  field  after  it  has  been  cultivated,  and  observe 
what  weeds  grow  from  seeds  that  have  been  placed  by 
cultivation  so  they  could  germinate. 


Fig.  21. — Wild  Buckwheat  or  Black 
Bind  Weed.  Notice  the  root,  leaves, 
seed  and  twining  stem. 


60  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Pasture  Stubble  Fields. — Pasturing  stubble  fields  is 
a  good  way  to  destroy  some  of  the  annual  weeds.  Sheep 
are  especially  good  animals  for  this  work,  as  they  will 
eat  many  kinds  of  weeds  and  eat  them  so  close  to  the 
ground  that  they  cannot  seed.  If  rape,  turnips  or  clover 
is  sown  with  the  grain  crop  in  the  spring  a  large  amount 
of  good  feed  may  be  furnished  in  the  fall  in  the  stubble 
field,  and  if  this  is  pastured  oft'  many  weeds  will  be  de- 
stroyed. Observe  sheep  and  cattle  and  see  what  weeds 
they  eat  and  what  ones  they  leave. 

Disc  Stubble  Fields. — If  there  is  no  crop  growing  in 
the  stubble  field,  as  rape  or  clover,  and  it  is  not  handy^ 
to  pasture  it,  a  great  many  weeds  and  weed  seeds  may 
be  destroyed  by  discing  the  field  soon  after  harvest.  The 
disc  will  kill  some  weeds  that  would  otherwise  go  to  seed, 
and  it  covers  a  great  many  weed  seeds  so  they  will  start 
to  grow  and  the  young  plants  will  be  killed  later  by 
plowing  or  by  frost. 

Use  Quick  Growing  Crops. — ^Barley,  millet  and  other 
quick  growing  and  thick  growing  crops  are  useful  in 
fighting  weeds.  They  may  be  sown  late  in  the  season, 
which  gives  a  chance  to  cultivate  the  soil  a  few  times 
before  the  crop  is  sown.  These  crops  grow  rapidly  and 
thickly,  so  they  give  weeds  a  poor  chance.  They  also 
ripen  early,  so  very  few  weeds  can  ripen  and  shell  their 
seeds  before  the  crop  is  harvested.  Being  removed  from 
the  field  early,  the  field  can  be  disced,  plowed  or  pastured 
to  further  destroy  weeds. 

Weed  Seeds  Grow  in  the  Fall. — Some  people  have  be- 
lieved that  weed  seeds,  especially  wild  oats  that  have 
been  produced  during  the  summer,  will  not  grow  in  the 
fall;  but  they  will  grow  if  given  a  chance.  Try  this  by 
gathering  in  the  fall  a  few  ripe  seeds  of  some  of  the 
weeds  mentioned  above,  and  planting  them  not  later  thar. 
Sept.  1.  Cover  them  one-half  inch  deep,  and  if  the  soil 
is  dry  moisten  it  and  watch  results. 


BIENNIAL   WEEDS.  61 

Questions : 

1.  Give  three  things  necessary  to  do  to  keep  a  farm 
free  of  weeds. 

2.  In  what  ways  does  a  rotation  of  crops  aid  in  erad- 
icating weeds? 

3.  In  what  ways  do  quick  growing  crops  aid  in- 
eradicating  weeds? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  man  with  four  horses  can  harrow  40  acres  in 
8  hours.    How  much  can  he  harrow  in  1  hour? 

2.  A  man's  time  is  worth  14c  per  hour  and  each- 
horse's  time  is  worth  8c  per  hour.  What  does  it  cost 
per  daiy  for  the  labor  of  a  man  and  4  horses  (10  hours 
for  working  day)  ? 

3.  If  a  man  and  4  horses  harrow  40  acres  per  day, 
what  does  it  cost  the  farmer  per  acre  to  harrow  his  land  ? 
(Is  not  harrowing  a  cheap  way  to  kill  weeds?) 

BIENNIAL  WEEDS. 

Definition. — ^Biennial  weeds  are  those  that  grow  from 
seed  one  year,  live  over  winter,  mature,  seed  the  second 
year,  then  die.  There  are  but  two  of  our  common  weeds, 
Bull  Thistle  and  Burdock,  that  belong  to  this  clasls. 

Bull  Thistle. — Every  country  boy  or  girl  readily  rec- 
ognizes the  common  thistles.  They  are  tall,  coarse  plants 
with  hollow  stems.  Their  leaves  are  curly  and  have 
sharp  .opines  at  the  tips  and  about  their  ma/rgins.  The 
blossoms  or  flowers  are  very  small,  but  grow  in  large, 
compact  heads  1  in.  to  ll^  in.  across.  The  heads  are 
purple  or  lavender,  and  on  bright  days  bees  are  usually 
seen  flying  about  these  flowers  after  the  honey  they  con- 
tain. Many  may  be  interested  in  examining  a  thistle 
head  or  cluster  of  blossoms.  Tear  it  apart  carefully 
and  notice  the  great  number  of  slender,  tubelike  flowers 
of  which  it  is  composed.  The  head  that  is  commonly 
called  the  flower  is  a- cluster  of  flowers.  Then  get  a  ripe 
head,  pull  it  apart  and  notice  that  at  the  base  of  each 
flower  is  a  seed  nearly  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  wheat. 
About  all  that  is  now  left  of  the  flowers  is  some  long, 


62  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

white  hairs  attached  to  the  top  of  each  seed.  When  a 
ripe  head  is  broken  open  these  hairs  spread  apart,  and 
if  the  wind  is  blowing  the  seeds  may  be  carried  a  long 
distance.  This  is/  the  way  nature  has  provided  for  dis- 
tributing the  seeds. 

The  Bull  Thistle  is  quite  common  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  It  is  usually  found  in  pastures,  waste  places 
and  along  roadsides,  but  is  not  troublesome  in  cultivated 
fields. 

Thistles  Compared. — There  are  several  kinds  of  this- 
tles ;  but  if  one  makes  a  mistake  in  naming  them  there  is 
no  serious  harm  done,  as  all  are  very  much  alike  in  habit 
with  the  exception  of  the  Canadian  Thistle  and  Sow  or 
Milk  Thistle,  which  are  both  perennials  and  very  bad 
weeds. 

The  Sow  Thistle  is  easily  told  from  the  other  thistles 
by  its  smooth  leaves  and  yellow  blossoms.  The  Canada 
Thistle  is  not  so  easily  distinguished  from  the  common 
thistle.  Every  boy  and  girl  should  know  the  Canada 
Thistle,  so  if  any  of  them  get  on  the  farm  they  can  be 
destroyed  before  they  get  a  start.  The  Canada  Thistles 
are  smaller  in  all  parts'* — head,  stem  and  leaves — than  the 
Bull  Thistle.  They  are  more  certainly  distinguished  by 
their  underground  root  stalks  that  connect  several  plants, 
while  the  Bull  Thistles  have  tap  roots  and  ea^ch  plant 
is  separate.  Try  to  find  specimens  of  each  and  notice 
the  difference  in  leaf,  head,  root  and  manner  of  growth. 

Burdock,  the  other  common  biennial  weed,  like  the 
Bull  Thistle,  is  found  in  pastures,  waste  places  and 
along  roadsides,  and  is  also  not  troublesome  in  cultivated 
fields.  It  is  a  coarse,  bushy,  branching  plant  with  broad 
leaves.  It  is  sometimes  confused  with  the  Cockle  Bur, 
which  resembles  it  very  much.  But  the  Cockle  Bur  is 
an  annual  and  is  sometimes  found  in  cultivated  fields. 
The  two  weeds  are  most  easily  distinguished  by  the  burs. 
The  bur  of  the  Burdock  is  more  nearly  round  than  is 
that  of  the  other  and  has  several  angular  seeds  in  it, 
each  of  which  is  supplied  with  a  tuft  of  hair  at  the  up- 
per end  by  which  it  may  be  blown  about.     There  are 


BIENNIAL    WEEDS. 


63 


many  little  spines  on  the  surface  of  the  Burdock  bur, 
which  enable  it  to  cling  to  the  clothing  or  to  the  hair  or 
wool  of  animals.  In  this  way  also  the  seed  is  distrib- 
uted. The  bur  is  easily  torn  apart.  The  bur  of  the 
Cockle  Bur  is  about  twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad  and  has 
two  hook-like  projections  at  the  top.  It  is  quite  hard 
to  open,  but  when  opened  reveals  two  cells  with  one 
seed  in  each.  If  the  two  can  be -found  examine  them 
closely  so  you  will  be  able  to  tell  them  apart. 


Fig.  22.  —  Burdock.  (Note 
coarse  leaves  and  rounded 
burs  with  spines.)  Com- 
pare with  fig.  23. 


Fig.  23.— Cockle  Bur.  (Note 
coarse  leaves,  oblong  burs 
with  two  hooks  at  top.) 


To  Eradicate  Biennials  prevent  them  from  seeding. 
This  may  be  done  to  some  extent  by  mowing,  but  where 
possible  a  better  way  is  to  cut  them  off  just  below  the 
ground  with  a  spade  or  similar  instrument.  Then  branch- 
es can  not  start  out  from  the  stub  and  produce  seed. 
They  are  very  ugly  looking  weeds  and  should  never  be 
allowed  to  seed,  as  one  plant  will  produce  many  seeds 
and  they  may  be  blown  or  carried  a  long  distance.     If 


64  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

old  pastures  can  be  broken  up  and  sown  to  grain  or 
com,  and  new  fields  seeded  for  pasture,  these  weedte  will 
give  very  little  trouble.  In  stony  or  rough  pastures'  that 
cannot  be  plowed,  these  weeds  should  be  kept  cut  off 
and  an  attempt  made  to  get  a  good  stand  of  bromus  or 
blue  grass  which  would  crowd  them  out. 

Questions : 

1.  What  can  you  sajy  of  a  Bull  Thistle — its  leaves, 
flowers  and  roots? 

2.  How  are  seeds  of  the  Bull  Thistle  distributed? 

3.  How  would  you  tell  a  Bull  Thistle  from  a  Canada 
Thistle?    From  a  Sow  or  Milk  Thistle? 

4.  How  can  you  distinguish  Burdock  from  Cockle 
Bur? 

5.  How  is  Burdock  seed  distributed? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  man's  time  is  worth  14c  per  hour  and  each 
horse's  time  is  worth  8c  an  hour,  what  does  it  cost  per 
acre  to  keep  the  thistles  out  of  a  20-acre  pasture  if  it 
takes  a  man  and  team  13  hours  to  mow  the  same  ?  What 
is  the  cost  per  acre? 

2.  If  a  ma,n  spends  15  hours  each  month  for  three 
months  to  keep  the  burdocks  cut  off  in  a  six-acre  field, 
what  is  the  total  cost  at  14c  per  hour?  What  is  the  cost 
per  acre? 

PERENNIAL    WEEDS. 

Perennial  Weeds  are  perhaps  not  the  most  common 
weeds,  but  they  are  certainly  the  most  persistent  and 
troublesome.  To  this  class  belong  such  weeds  as  Quack 
Grass,  Canada  Thistle,  Sow  Thistle,  Morning  Glory,  and 
Curled  Dock.  These  weeds  grow  not  only  from  seeds, 
but  persist  in  growing  and  spreading  even  if  prevented 
from  seeding.  They  grow  from  underground  root  stalks 
and  when  the  land  is  plowed,  instead  of  the  root  stalks 
being  killed  they  are  broken  up  and  dragged  about. 
From  the  joints  in  these  pieces  will  come  new  plants. 
These   root  stalks   grow   out  from  the   new  plants   also, 


PERENNIAL  WEEDS.  65 

and  in  time  plants  start  along  the  new  root  stalk.  Where 
there  is  one  plant  in  the  spring  there  may  be  several  in 
the  fall. 

Every  farmer  should  be  thoroughly  familiar  with 
these  weeds  so  as  to  recognize  them  at  once  and  exter- 
minate them  as  soon  as  they  appear.  It  is  a  very  seri- 
ous matter  to  get  a  field  badly  infested  with  these  weeds 
as  it  requires  much  labor  and  expanse  to  eradicate  them. 

Curled  Dook  is  a  perennial  weed  that  grows  from 
underground  root  stalks.  It  is  a  plant  about  two  feet 
high  and  has  long  narrow  leaves.  Its  seeds  are  three 
sided,  with  a  wing-like  attachment  on  each  of  the  three 
edges.  It  may  prove  interesting  to  gather  some  of  these 
seeds  and  notice  the  winged  arrangement  by  which  they 
may  be  blown  about.  You  may  have  seen  them  drifting 
along  on  the  top  of  the  snow.  On  the  plant  the  seeds 
are  clustered  along  the  top  end  of  the  stem  and  branches. 
Curled  dock  is  commonly  found  in  low,  moist  places. 
It  is  not  considered  a  very  bad  weed,  but  may  give  con- 
siderable trouble  on  poorly  drained  soils.  Good  drain- 
age, good  cultivation  and  rotation  of  crops  are  the  most 
satisfactory  ways  of  handling  this  weed. 

Morning  Glory  is  easily  recognized  by  its  large  white, 
pink  or  purple  funnel  shaped  blossoms.  They  are  very 
pretty,  but  are  not  desirable  in  fields,  as  they  are  hard 
to  get  rid  of.  They  twine  about  the  crop  plants  and 
choke  them  out.  They  spread  by  very  tough,  string- 
like underground  root  stalks,  and  any  ordinary  system 
of  rotation  or  cultivation  will  not  kill  them  out.  Per- 
sistent hoeing,  so  as  to  keep  all  the  leaves  cut  off,  not 
allowing  any  to  appear  above  ground  for  a  whole  sea- 
son will  kill  them.  This  is  very  hard  to  accomplish. 
They  may  also  be  destroyed  by  thorough  bare  fallowing. 

Sow  Thistle,  the  smooth  leaved,  yellow  blossomed 
thistle,  is  also  a  perennial  and  a  very  persistent  and 
troublesome  weed.  In  some  sections  it  is  getting  such 
a  start  that  it  threatens  to  take  possession  of  whole  fields 
unless  heroic  efforts  are  made  to  eradicate  it.  It  pro- 
duces seeds  which  are  blown  about ;   and  these  greatly  as- 


66 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


sist  in  spreading  it,  though  it  may  easily  spread  all  over  a 
farm  simply  by  means  of  its  root  stalks.  It  would  be  well 
if  every  farmer  and  every  farm  boy  and  girl  could  get  hold 
of  a  specimen  of  this  plant  and  study  it  until  thoroughly 
familiar  with  it  and  able  to  identify  one  at  sight. 

Canada  Thistle,  as  stated,  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
common  or  Bull  Thistle,  though  smaller  in  every  respect. 
It  is  not  nearly  so  common  as  is  the  Bull  Thistle,  but  where 
it  is  found  it  is  a  much  worse  weed.  Practically  every 
thing  said  of  the  habits<  of  the  Sow  Thistle  is  true  of 
this  thistle. 


k 

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Fig.   24.— Bun    Thistle.      (Note  Fig.  25.— Canada  Thistle.  (Note 
head,  spiney  leaves  and  seed  that  the  plants  are  attached 
with  large,  hair-like  tuft  at  by  underground  roots.)     Corn- 
top,   which   enables  it  to  float  pare  with  Fig.  24. 
in    the   air.)      Compare    with 
Fig.  25. 

The  Canada  Thistle  has  been  destroyed  by  mowing 
off  just  when  in  bloom.  The  stems  are  hollow,  and  rain 
running  down  through  the  hollow  stem  has  caused  the 
roots  to  decay.  Such  results  are  not  frequent,  though, 
asi  there  are  usually  young  plants  just  starting  that  are 


PERENNIAL  WEEDS.  67 

not  hurt  by  the  treatment,  and  they  keep  the  field  in- 
fested.    This  thistle  is  injured  to  some  extent  by  spray- 
ing with  sulphate  of  iron,  but  this  is  not  thought  to  be  a 
thoroughly  reliable  treatment.     See  page  67. 
Questions : 

1.  What  is  a  perennial  weed? 

2.  Name  some  of  the  differqfices  between  Canada 
Thistles  and  Sow  Thistles. 

3.  Tell  all  you  can  about  curled  dock. 
Arithmetic : 

1.  Morning  glories  twine  about  and  destroy  200  hills 
of  corn  on  an  acre.  What  part  of  the  crop  is  thus  de- 
stroyed?    (There  are  3200  hills  per  acre.) 

2.  If  this  acre  of  corn  yields  45  bu.,  how  much  would 
it  have  yielded  had  not  the  200  hills  been  destroyed? 

3.  A  man  raises  48  acresi  of  corn.  200  hills  out  of 
each  acre  are  destroyed  by  weeds.  How  many  acres  are 
destroyed  by  weeds? 

4.  What  is  the  value  of  3  acres;  of  corn  yielding  48 
bu.  per  acre  when  corn  is  worth  35c  per  bu.  ? 

MORE   ABOUT    PERENNIAL   WEEDS. 

Quack  Grass  is  a  perennial,  grass-like  plant  and 
spreads  by  seed  and  by  underground  root  stalks..  (See 
Fig.  29.)  When  it  once  gets  a  start,  and  especially  in 
good  soil,  it  grows  in  very  thick  masses  and  crowds  out 
every  kind  of  cultivated  plant.  The  underground  roots 
grow  so  thick  as  to  form  a  very  tough  sod,  difficult  to 
plow  and  pulverize.  If  such  a  soil  is  plowed,  pulverized 
and  seeded,  the  small  pieces  of  quack  grass  roots  grow 
and  form  such  a  thick  mass  that  whatever  crop  is  planted 
is  very  liable  to  be  crowded  out. 

Root  Stalks. — The  underground  root  stalks  are  joint- 
ed about  every  inch,  and  from  every  joint  left  in  the  soil 
new  plants  will  grow,  the  same  as  a  potato  plant  will 
grow  from  a  potato  eye  or  as  a  willow  cutting  will  grow. 
If  you  are  not  already  familiar  with  the  way  quack 
grass  grows  and  spreads,  it  might  be  of  interest  to  dig 


68 


AGHTCULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


Up  a  bunch  of  the  plants  and  observe  them.  You  will 
see  that  several  plants  are  attached  by  white  root  stalks, 
that  the  root  stalks  have  sharp  points  that  enable  them 
to  push  their  Avay  through  the  soil,  and  that  these  under- 
ground root  stalks  are  jointed. 


Fig.  26. — ^Heads  of  (1)  quack  grass;  notice  how  much  closer  the  spike- 
lets  are  than  in  (2)   rye  grass;   (3)  true  sweet  vernal;   (4)  bromus. 


Quack  Grass  Compared  with  Other  Grasses. — Every 
farmer  and  farm  boy  and  girl  should  be  able  to  recog- 
nize quack  grass  when  he  sees  it.  This  is  quite  easily 
done  if  one  knows  its  habits  of  growth  and  just  takes 
the  pains  to  notice  the  difference  between  it  and  a  few 
other  grasses  that  are  somewhat  similar  but  sufficiently 


PERENNIAL,  WEEDS. 


69 


different  to  be  readily  recognized  if  one  has  but  com- 
pared them. 

To  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  plant  it  is  usually 
recognizable  by  its  general  appearance,  and  especially  by 
its  habit  of  growing  in  thick  bunches;  but  for  those  who 
are  not  so  familiar  with  it  there  are  two  ways,  at  least, 
by  which  it  may  be  recognized.  These  are  by  the  heads 
and  by  the  underground  root  stalks,  or  by  both.  If 
one  has  both  the  head  and  the  root  he  can  be  practically 
sure  of  identifying  it. 

Rye  Grass  has  a  head  somewhat  similar  to  quack  (see 
Fig.  26)  but  the  two  may  usually  be  identified  by  the  fact 
that  the  spikelets  on  the  head  of  the  rye  grass  are 
farther  apart  than  on  the  head  of  the  quack  grass.  Each 
spikelet  on  the  quack  grass  extends  past  the  base  of  the 

spikelet  next  higher  on 
the  same  side  of  the 
head  while  in  rye  grass 
each  spikelet  does  not 
reach  the  base  of  the 
spikelet  above  it.  (See 
Fig.  26.)  Rye  grass  is 
a  plant  rather  commonly 
used  for  a  hay  crop,  es- 
pecially farther  west, 
where  the  seasons  are 
usually  dry.  It  does  not 
make  as  good  a  quality  of 
hay  as  does  timothy  or 
bromus.  It  is  not  hard  to 
destroy,  as  it  has  no  root 
!il2l^  stalks,  and  may  be  dis- 


head     of 


Fig.   27. — Root     and 

grass  commonly  called  sweet  ver- 
nal    because     sweet     scented     and    tinguished     from      quack 
often  mistaken  for  quack  grass  in  ^  ^ 

the    spring    before    heading,    as    it 
has  root  stalks. 


grass  by  the  fact  that  its 

roots  are  fine  and  fibrous, 

similar  to  timothy  roots. 

Sweet  Vernal. — Another  grass  commonly  called  sweet 

vernal,  though  not  truly  sweet  vernal  (Fig.  27),  is  very 

often  mistaken  for  quack  grass,  as  it  has  similar  under- 


70  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

ground  root  stalks.  This  grass  is  usually  recognized  by 
its  sweet,  spicy  odor,  and  is  certainly  distinguished  from 
quack  grass  by  its  bushy,  panicled  head,  so  different  from 
the  straight  spike  of  the  quack  grass. 

Bromus,  a  cultivated  grass  quite  commonly  grown 
for  hay  or  for  pasturage,  may  sometimes  be  mistaken 
fori  quack  grass,  especially  when  small.  Bromus  is  rath- 
er persistent,  and  after  a  meadow  or  pasture  of  bro- 
mus is  plowed  it  often  starts  in  thick  bunches,  in  the 
spring,  very  similar  to  quack  grass  and  the  two  are 
not  easily  told  apart  at  this  stage,  as  both  have  under- 
ground root  stalks.  Bromus  may  be  recognized,  how- 
ever, by  its  broader  leaf,  and  when  heads  appear,  by 
its  broadly  spreading  panicle.     See  Fig.  26. 

Muhlenbergia. — Another  class  of  plants,  known  as 
muhlenbergia,  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  quack  grass, 
but  plants  of  this  class  may  be  told  with  reasonable  ac- 
curacy by  their  scaly  root  stalks.  The  heads  also  are 
sufficiently  different  to  identify  them.     See  Fig.  28. 

It  is  hoped  that  every  reader  will  carefully  examine 
a  quack  grass  plant  and  compare  it  with  as  many  of 
the  other  plants  mentioned  in  this  section  as  possible, 
or  at  least,  compare  it  with  the  illustrations.  This  we 
believe  will  help  him  to  recognize  the  pest  with  rea- 
sonable accuracy.  If  our  readers  will  gather  specimens 
(roots,  head  and  all)  of  three  or  four  of  these  grasses 
and  study  them  carefully  it  will  aid  them  greatly  in 
identifying  quack  grass. 

Questions : 

1.  How  does  quack  grass  grow  in  good  soil  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  hard  to  plow  a  quack  grass  sod  ? 

3.  From  what  points  in  quack  grass  roots  do  new 
plants  grow? 

4.  Compare  a  head  of  quack  grass  with  a  head  of 
rye  grass ;  with  a  head  of  sweet  vernal ;  with  a  head 
of  bromus ;  with  a  head  of  muhlenbergia ;  and  show  dif- 
ferences by  sketches. 


ERADICATION  OF  PERENNIAL  WEEDS.  71 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  quack  grass  reduces  the  yield  of  corn  10  bu. 
per  acre,  what  is  the  loss  per  acre  when  corn  is  worth 
35  cts.  per  bu.  ? 

2.  If  quack  grass  causes  a  loss  of  $2.00  an  acre  per 
year,  how  many  years  would  it  take  to  lose  $9.00  or  the 
approximate  cost  of  eradicating  it? 

3.  If  quack  grass  crowds  out  32  square  rods  of  grain 
on  each  acre,  what  per  cent  of  the  crop  is  destroyed? 

ERADICATION    OF    PERENNIAL  WEEDS. 

The  Problem. — One  of  the  very  serious  problems  with 
which  farmers  have  to  contend  is  the  eradication  of  per- 
ennial weeds,  and  the  very  hardest  of  these  to  control 
is  quack  grass.  Perennial  weeds  are  so  persistent  that 
ordinary  methods  of  cultivation  instead  of  killing  them 
only  cultivate  them  and  increase  their  growth.  Simply 
keeping  these  weeds  mowed  down  and  preventing  them 
from  seeding  is  not  sufficient  to  kill  them.  The  roots 
must  be  removed  or  destroyed  or  the  plants  will  per- 
sist in  growing. 

When  there  is  but  a  small  patch,  or  at  most  only  a 
lew  small  patches,  of  these  perennial  weeds,  some  of 
the  following  methodsi  of  eradication  may  be  success- 
fully followed: 

Remove  the  Roots. — The  roots  may  be  dug  from  a 
small  patch  by  spading  the  ground  with  a  manure  or 
potato  fork  and  carefully  shaking  out  all  the  roots. 
These  should  be  taken  from  the  field  and  burned  if  pos- 
sible, or  at  least  put  where  they  cannot  grow.  The  patch 
must  be  watched  carefully  for  a  season  or  two  and  any 
new  plants  that  appear  must  be  removed.  It  is  not  easy 
to  get  all  the  roots  the  first  time. 

Smother  with  Tar  Paper. — The  roots  of  any  plant  are 
dependent  upon  its  leaves  for  nourishment.  While  the 
roots  take  food  from  the  soil,  the  food  is  of  no  use  tp 
the  plant  until  it  has  first  been  to  the  leaves,  where  it 
is  changed  to  a  form  in  which  the  plant  can  use  it.  If, 
then,  the  leaves  can  be  kept  away  from  thB  sunshine  the 


72 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


roots  will  starve  and  decay.  Covering  with  tar  paper 
will  accomplish  this,  and  it  is  a  practical  method  for 
small  patches.  The  paper  musit  be  left  on  from  six  to 
eight  weeks,  and  should  extend  three  or  four  feet  be- 
yond the  edges  of  the  weed  patch. 

Smother  with  Straw  or  Manure. — Small  patches  of 
these  weeds  may  be  killed  out  by  covering  with  straw  or 

manure.  The  covering 
must  be  put  on  very 
thick,  three  or  four  feet 
deep,  and  should  ex- 
tend three  or  four  feet 
farther  than  the  edges 
of  the  weed  patch. 

The  above  methods 
are  effective,  but  when 
a  whole  field  is  infest- 
ed with  any  of  these 
weeds  it  would  be  too 
expensive  to  cover  it 
or  to  dig  out  the  roots 
by  hand. 

Easy  Methods  not 
Effective. — There  are 
many  ways  suggested 
0  f  eradicating  these 
weeds,  and  most  of 
them  have  considerable 

Fig.  28.-Roots  and  head,  of  one  of  the     ^^rit       Plowiug  late   in 
muhlenbergias.        The    roots    of    all     the     fall     and     CXpOSlUg 

rar;\"o'oT¥fa1k."'   '""""■      """'   the    roots    to    thawing 

and  freezing  of  winter 
has  been  suggested.  This  undoubtedly  injures  the  roots, 
but  we  have  never  known  of  a  case  where  it  killed  them 
out  completely.  Another  remedy  suggested  is  to  plow 
the  land  late  in  the  spring  and  seed  to  some  thick  grow- 
ing crop,  as  hemp  or  buckwheat.  These  crops  injure  the 
weeds  considerably ;  but  in  most  cases  the  weeds  are  only 
checked  and  in  a  year  or  so  the  field  is  as  badly  infested 


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mB^^^^^M 

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^Ra 

1 

ERADICATION  OF  PERENNIAL  WEEDS. 


73 


as  ever.  While  these  methods  are  comparatively  cheap 
they  are  so  seldom  effective  that,  as  a  general  thing,  they 
are  more  expensive  than  the  more  costly  and  surer  meth- 
ods suggested  below. 


Fig-.  29. — Roots     and     stems     of  quack    grass.      Note    jointed    root 
stalks   and  tliat   several   plants  are  attached. 


Bare  Fallowing. — Qniack  grass  and  other  perennial 
weeds  have  been  completely  eradicated  by  thorough  bare 
fallowing ;  that  is,  so  thoroughly  cultivating  the  soil  that 
the  plants  are  prevented  from  forming  any  leaves.  This 
is  based  on  the  same  principle  as  covering  with  tar  paper 
or  manure    (the  theory   of   smothering   the  plant)    but 


74  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

may  be  applied  to  large  fields.  The  plan  is  to  set  aside 
a  field  and  not  attempt  to  raise  a  crop  on  it.  Allow  the 
weeds'  to  grow  in  the  spring  until  they  begin  to  head. 
At  this  time  the  roots  are  the  weakest  they  will  be,  as 
they  have  expended  a  part  of  their  energy  to  produce 
seed.  At  this  stage  plow  under  the  whole  crop  deeply 
and  completely.  This  will  be  done  early  in  June,  and 
from  that  time  until  fall  nothing  should  be  allowed  to 
grow  on  this  field.  The  disc  should  be  run  over  the  field 
every  few  days,  to  cover  any  leaves  that  may  appear.  If 
the  leaves  are  not  allowed  to  appear  above  ground  the 
roots  must  die.  The  year  following  the  bare  fallow  the 
field  should  be  planted  to  corn,  so  that  any  plant  that 
may  have  escaped  will  be  seen  and  may  be  destroyed. 
The  above  method  is  costly,  but  is  much  cheaper  than 
to  fa/rm  with  these  weeds  in  the  field  all  the  time. 

Other  Methods,. — If  quack  grass  fields  can  be  pas- 
tured two  or  three  years  the  roots  will  come  closer  to 
the  surface ;  then  deep  plowing  in  the  middle  of  the  sum- 
mer will  turn  the  roots  under  so  deeply  that  it  is  easy 
by  frequent  discing  to  keep  them  from  growing.  This 
cheapens  somewhat  the  process,  because  the  land  can  be 
pastured  part  of  the  season. 

Some  farmers  have  been  successful  by  keeping  the 
field  thoroughly  cultivated  and  bare  until  the  middle  of 
the  summer  and  then  sowing  some  quick  and  thick  grow- 
ing crop,  as  hemp,  millet  or  buckwheat,  to  thoroughly 
shade  the  ground.  Thorough  fallowing  the  entire  year  is 
the  safer  practice.  If  a  field  is  free  of  these  weeds,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  carry  the  roots  on  the  harrow, 
plow  or  cultivator  from  infested  fields. 

Questions : 

1.  What  measures  must  be  taken  to  eradicate  per- 
ennial weeds? 

2.  In  what  way  does  tar  paper  destroy  quack  grass? 

3.  What  is  accomplished  by  thorough  bare  fallowing? 


ERADICATION    OF    PERENNIAL    WEEDS.  75 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  roll  of  tar  paper  containing  500  sq.  ft.  costs 
$1.25,  how  much  will  it  cost  for  paper  to  cover  one  sq. 
rod  of  quack  grass?     To  cover  an  acre? 

2.  If  a  man  can  dig  1  sq.  rod  of  quack  grass  in  4 
hours,  what  does  it  cost  per  sq.  rod?  What  is  the  cost 
per  acre?     (Note:    A  man's  time  is  worth  14c  per  hour.) 

3.  To  thoroughly  bare  fallpw  a  field,  it  must  be 
plowed  2  to  4  times  and  disced  10  to  20  times.  AVhat  will 
it  cost  to  plow  an  acre  3  times  and  disc  it  15  times? 
(Note:  It  costs  $1.25  per  acre  to  plow,  and  35c  per  acre 
to  disc.) 


CHAPTER  V. 
CORN. 

GENERAL    FEATURES   OF   THE   CORN    CROP. 

Yield  of  Corn. — Average  yields  of  com  in  even  the 
best  corn  growing  states  of  the  union  are  very  low, 
much  lower  in  faict  than  yields  secured  by  the  best 
farmers.  Corn  is  one  of  the  staple  crops,  and  it  is  well 
worth  the  time  of  any  one  interested  in  farming  to 
know  the  methods  practiced  by  the  best  farmers,  that 
they  may  secure  maximum  yields  at  the  least  possible 
expense  of  labor  and  fertility. 

As  farmers  change  from  grain  raising  to  a  more  di- 
versified type  of  agriculture,  more  live  stock  will  be 
kept  and  more  corn  raised.  The  average  160-acre  farm 
will  then  raise  from  30  to  50  acres  of  com  each  year. 

A  Young  Man's  Opportunity. — If  a  young  man  begins 
farming  on  one  of  these  farms  Avhen  he  is  20  years  old, 
and  continues  until  he  is  fifty,  he  will  raise  during  his 
active  life  approximately  1200  acres  of  corn.  It  will 
make  quite  a  difference  to  him  and  his  family  whether 
he  follows  indifferent  methods  of  farming  and  gets  an 
average  yield  of  30  bushels  per  acre,  or  whether  he  fol- 
lows good  methods  and  gets  40  bushels  per  acre.  It 
will  pay,  and  pay  well,  any  boy  who  expects  to  raise 
corn  to  thoroughly  master  the  subject,  so  he  will  be  the 
one  who  will  get  the  extra  ten  bushels  per  acre. 

Details. — Nearly  every  large  business  is  made  up  of  a 
lot  of  details,  and  com  growing  is  no  exception.  The  four 
general  requirements  for  a  good  crop  of  corn  are,  good 
seed,  good  soil,  good  tillage  and  good  climatic  conditions. 

Good  seed  is  easily  secured  by  selecting  good  ears 
of  corn  from  good  plants,  and  by  cairefully  curing,  stor- 
ing, testing  and  grading  it. 

Good  soil  may  be  had  in  almo^  any  part  of  the 
United  States  by  properly  earing  for  the  land  we  have.. 


GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  CORN  CROP.        77 

By  practicing  rotation  of  crops,  by  keeping  live  stock 
and  feeding  on  the  farm  most  of  the  field  crops)  raised 
instead  of  selling  them  and  thus  losing  fertility,  by 
draining  land  that  is  too  wet,  and  by  keeping  in  check 
noxious  weeds,  land  may  be  maintained  at  a  high  state 
of  productivity. 

Good  tillage  means  doing  the  things  which  make 
the  soil  the  best  possible  place  for  the  crop  to  grow  in. 
This  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  soil,  of  the  movement 
of  water  in  the  soil,  of  the  habits  of  plants,  and  of  the 
methods  by  which  plant  food  is  liberated. 

Climatic  Conditions. — Good  seed,  good  soil,  and  good 
tillage  are  within  the  control  of  the  farmer.  Climatic 
conditions  are  not,  though  he  may  do  many  things  to 
guard  against  unfavorable  weather.  One  can  drain  his 
land  to  avoid  an  excess  of  moisture  and  to  make  his 
soil  warmer.  Tie  can  regulate  his  tillage  operations  to 
conserve  moisture  in  case  of  drouth  and  to  aid  in  warm- 
ing the  soil  if  it  is  too  cold.  By  manuring  land  and  by 
growing  clover  occasionally,  one  can  make  a  soil  warm- 
er, more  retentive  of  moisture,  and  increase  its  producing 
power,  so  crops  will  grow  more  rapidly  and  thus  ripen 
in  a  shorter  time.  Climatic  conditions  are  usually  fa- 
vorable enough,  so  that  with  good  methods  of  farming 
good  crops  can  be  grown  practically  every  year. 

Some  farmers  in  the  corn  belt  have  raised  100  bush- 
els of  corn  per  acre.  Let  us  set  our  standard  at  that 
and  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
aim  high,  and  a  very  poor  plan  to  be  satisfied  with  just 
ordinary  results  when  it  is  reasonably  possible  to  do 
better. 

Questions : 

1.  Why  do  you  think  it  worth  w^hile  for  a  boy  to 
study  about  corn  growing? 

2.  Name  at  least  four  conditionsi  necessary  to  se- 
cure a  good  crop  of  corn. 

3.  What  may  one  do  to  reduce  the  bad  effects  of 
unfavorable  weather? 


78  AGRICULTURE   FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  A  and  B  each  grow  40  acres  of  corn  per  year 
for  30  years.  How  many  acres  does  each  grow  in  the 
30  years? 

2.  If  B  uses  the  besit  known  methods  of  corn  grow- 
ing and  secures  an  aiverage  yield  of  10  bu.  per  acre 
more  than  A,  how  many  bushels  more  com  will  he  raise 
in  30  years  than  A  raises?  How  much  will  his  extra 
corn  be  worth  at  an  avera,ge  price  of  35c  x>er  bu.  ? 

SHAPES  OF  KERNELS  OF  CORN. 

Selecting  Ears  of  Corn. — Every  farm  boy,  and  girl 
for  that  matter,  should  know  what  a  good  ear  of  corn 
should  be  like,  and  be  able  to  select  good  ears  from  a 
field  or  a  load.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  corn  in 
any  state  in  the  Union  might  be  made  to  yield  from 
five  to  twenty  bushels  more  than  it  does  at  present,  were 
careful  and  good  methods  used  in  the  selection  and  care 
of  seed  com. 

It  is-  interesting  and  valuable  to  be  able  to  look  over 
a  large  number  of  ears  of  corn  and  pick  out  the  best 
ones.  There  is  nothing  very  difficult  about  it  either,- 
and  anyone  who  will  study  carefully  a  few  ears  and 
kernels  of  corn  will  be  able  to  understand  the  desirable 
points  in  a  good  ear  of  corn,  and  after  one  understands 
just  what  is  wanted  a  little  experience  wdll  make  one 
quite  a  proficient  corn  judge. 

Kernels  Vary. — The  end  of  an  ear  of  corn  that  is 
attached  to  the  stalk  is  the  butt  end.  The  other  end  is 
the  tip.  If  you  examine  an  ear  of  com  closely  you  will 
find  that  not  all  of  the  kernels  are  the  same  shape.  The 
kernels  at  the  tip  of  the  ear  are  small  and  nearly  round. 
The  dent  in  the  top  of  the  kernel,  if  dent  com,  is  not  deep 
or  as  plain  as  in  the  kernels  in  the  middle  of  the  ear. 
Some  of  the  kernels  are  likely  missing.  Only  the  best- 
developed  ears  of  com  are  filled  out  at  the  tips. 

The  kernels  at  the  butt  end  of  the  ear  are  larger  and 


SHAPES   OF   KERNELS  OF   CORN. 


79 


are  very  irregular  in  shape.     Some  of  them  are  three- 
cornered. 

The  kernels  in  the  middle  of  the  ear  are  rectangular 
and  all  of  about  the  same  size. 


B  ' 

' 

Fig.  30. — Good  ears  of  corn, 
with  straight  rows  and  even 
kernels. 


Fig.  31. — Poor  ears  of  corn. 
Note  tlie  crooked  rows  and  ir- 
regular  kernels. 


The  rows  of  kernels  on  a  cob  should  be  straight.  Find 
an  ear  of  corn  with  straight  rows.  Find  one  with  crook- 
ed rows.  Notice  that  where  the  rows  are  crooked  the 
kernels  are  not  so  even  in  shape.  The  butt  of  the  ear  is 
larger  and  may  have  extra  rows  of  kernels.  The  ker- 
nels in  these  extra  rows  are  mostly  irregular.  If  a  ker- 
nel is  missing  in  one  of  the  rows,  see  how  the  other  ker- 
nels crowd  out  toward  this  place  and  are  irregular  in 
shape. 


80  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Questions : 

1.     Are  all  the  kernels  of  an  ear   of  corn  the   same 
shape  ? 

2.  What  shape  are  the  tip  kernels?  The  middle  ker- 
nels?   The  butt  kernels? 

3.  "What  cmi  you  say  of  rows  of  kernels  on  a  good 
ear  of  corn?     On  a  poor  ear? 

4.  "What  can  you  say  of  the  tip  of  a  good  ear  of 
corn? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  one  increased  his  crop  of  corn  5  bu.  per  acre 
by  careful  seed  selection,  how  much  more  corn  would 
he  get  on  35  acres? 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  five  bushels  of  com  at  35c 
per  bu.  ? 

3.  How  many  hours  could  one  afford  to  spend  if 
his  time  is  worth  14c  per  hour,  in  selecting  seed  corn 
that  would  yield  $1.65  worth  of  corii  more  per  acre  ? 

SIZES  OF   KERNELS   OF  CORN. 

Variation  of  Corn  Kernels. — There  is  a  great  variation 
in  the  size  of  kernels  of  corn ;  and  while  this  has  little  to 
do  with  the  yield —  that  is,  some  varieties  with  compara- 
tively small  kernels  may  yield  more  than  other  varieties 
with  large  kernels — it  is  nevertheless  important  to  se- 
lect ears  of  corn  on  which  the  kernels  are'  about  uniform 
in  size.  A  good  com  .iudge  should  study  these  little  de- 
tails, because  they  have  a  very  important  relation  to 
corn  yields. 

To  Compare  Kernels. — Shell  kernels  from  the  tip,  the 
butt  and  some  from  the  middle  of  an  ear  of  corn,  keeping 
the  three  kinds  separate.  Lay  three  of  the  even  sized  ker- 
nels from  the  middle  of  the  ear  together  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  and  draw  a  circle  about  them.  Make  the  circle 
just  large  enough  so  the  three  kernels  will  lie  flat  with- 
in. (Circle  about  the  size  of  a  nickel.)  See  how  many 
of  the  small  tip  kernels  can  be  laid  in  this  circle  and 
how  many  butt  kernels.    This  circle  is  about  the  size  of 


SIZES    OF  KERNELS    OF   CORN. 


81 


Fig.  32. — Showing  the  relative  size 
and  shape  of  tip,  middle  and  butt 
kernels  of  corn.  The  circle  repre- 
sents the  hole  in  the  plate  in  a 
corn  planter,  and  the  number  of 
kernels  of  the  different  sizes  that 
a  planter  would  drop  is  shown. 
Photo  by  H.  D.  Ayer. 


a.  hole  in  the  plate   of  the  corn  planter.     Notice  how 

much  thicker  some  of  the  butt  kernels  are  than  kernels 

from  the  middle  of  the  ear. 

Examine   a  corn  planter,  if  possible,   to  see   how  it 

drops  the  corn. 

It  is  very  important  to  the  farmer  that  all  his  seed 

corn  be  uniform  in  size,  because  corn  is  now  planted  by 

machines  and  unless 
the  kernels  are  about 
the  same  size  and  shape 
the  machine  cannot 
drop  the  same  number 
in  each  hill.  If  uneven 
sized  kernels  were  used 
for  planting,  the  num- 
ber in  a  hill  would  vary 
as  the  number  of  ker- 
nels you  were  able  to 
place  in  the  circles  you 
drew  varied.      Most 

farmers  like  to  plant  three  kernels  in  a  hill,  because  they 

have  found  that  three  stalks  to  a  hill  give  the  best  yields. 

Even  Sesd. — Farmers  can  get  even  corn  to  plant  by 
selecting  even,  straight  rowed  ears  of  corn,  and  by  shell- 
ing off  the  tip  and  butt  kernels,  using  this  part  for  feed 
and  saving  only  the  more  even  kernels  from  the  middle 
of  the  ears  to  plant.  The  w^hole  crop  on  an  acre  of  corn 
depends  on  a  few  ears  of  seed  com. 

Questions : 

1.  Do  the  size  and  shape  of  kernels  of  seed  corn 
make  any  difference  to  the  farmer? 

2.  How  can  farmers  get  even  seed  corn? 

3.  If  the  tip  kernels  were  put  into  a  planter,  would 
it  drop  too  many  or  too  few? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  After  the  tip  and  butt  kernels  of  corn  have  been 
shelled  off  from  an  ear,  count  the  number  of  rows  of  ker- 


82 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


nels;     then   count   the   number   of   kernels   in   one    row. 
How  man 3^  kernels  on  the  ear  of  corn? 

2.  Find  how  many  hills  of  corn  on  an  acre  when 
corn  is  planted  in  hills  3  ft  8  in.  apart  ea,ch  way. 

Note. — There  are  160  sq.  rds.  in  an  acre,  and  each  hill  of  corn 
takes  up  3  ft.  8  in.  x  3  ft.   8  in.  or  13   4-9  sq.   ft.   of  space. 

3.  If  three  kernels  are  planted  in  each  hill,  how 
many  ears  of  corn  like  the  one  you  counted  are  required 
to  plant  an  acre? 

PARTS  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN. 


wm 


Examining  Kernels. — It  is  not  always)  easy  to  believe 
that  there  is  a  quite  complete,  though  small,  corn  plant 
in  each  kernel  of  corn.  If  you  will  soak  a  few  kernels 
of  corn  for  a  few  moments  in  hot  water  it  will  be  easy 
to  dissect  them,  and  they  furnish  a  very  good  object- 
lesson. 

A   kernel    of   corn   consists    of   three   parts — an   out- 
side shell  or  seed  coat;    a  little  speck  of  life,  or  the  em- 
bryo, and  about  the  embryo 
a  white,  starchy  substance  or 
food  portion. 

The  Seed  Coat  may  be 
easily  removed  from  a  ker- 
nel of  corn  that  has  been 
soaked  for  a  few  minutes  in 
hot  water.  It  is  hard  and 
tough.  Its  purpose  is  to  pro- 
tect the  parts  within.  It  pro- 
tects them  from  heat,  cold, 
and  moisture. 

The   Embryo. — The    speck 

of   life,   or   embryo,   may   be 

taken  from  a  soaked  kernel 

of  corn  by  the  use  of  a  sharp 

knife  or  a  needle.     It  is  really   a  very  tiny  live   corn 

pJant,  and  is  found  bedded  near  the  tip  of  the  kernel,  in 

the  white   starchy   part.     This   embryo   has   a  root  and 


Fig.  4. — The  parts  of  a  kernel 
of  corn.  1.  The  side  of  the 
kernel  on  which  the  embryo 
is  found.  2.  The  side  opposite 
the  embryo.  3.  A  kernel  with 
the  embryo  and  seed  coat  re- 
moved. 4.  The  embryo.  5.  The 
seed  coat  removed  from  the 
kernel. 


PARTS  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN.  83 

a  stem.  The  stem  is  not  green,  however,  because  it  has 
been  shut  up  in  the  dark.  If  corn  is  properly  ripened 
and  kept  dry  the  little  plant  within  each  kernel  will 
stay  alive  a  long  time,  and  be  ready  to  grow  when  the 
kernel  containing  it  is  put  into  the  ground  and  supplied 
with  heat  and  moiature.  Tf  corn  be  allowed  to  freeze, 
perhaps  thaw  out  and  freeze  again,  the  little  embryo 
within  a  kernel  is  not  likely  to  liVe,  and  the  kernel  would 
not  grow  if  planted.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  farmers 
are  careful  to  select  for  seed  well  ripened  ears  of  corn, 
and  to  store  them  safely. 

Food  Material. — After  the  seed  coat  has  been  re- 
moved and  the  embryo  taken  out,  a  large  part  of  the 
kernel  is  still  left.  It  is  the  food  part.  It  makes  food 
for  us  when  the  corn  is  ground  into  meal;  or,  when  the 
seed  is  planted  and  the  embryo  begins  to  grow,  it  is  this 
part  which  furnishes  the  embryo  with  food  until  it  has 
developed  roots  and  can  get  its  food  from  the  soil.  The 
large  kernels  have  more  of  this  food  material  than  the 
small  ones.  A  stronger  plant  will  grow  from  a  large 
kernel  than  from  a  small  one,  because  of  the  greater 
amount  of  food  material  the  larger  kernel  contains  for 
the  early  growth  of  the  little  plant.  This  is  one  reason 
why  good  plump  kernels  are  better  for  seed. 

Questions : 

1.  A  kernel  of  corn  consists  of  what  parts? 

2.  Tell  all  you  can  about  each  part. 

3.  Where  in  the  kernel  did  you  find  the  embryo? 

4.  What  would  injure  or  kill  the  embryo? 

5.  How  should  corn  which  you  mean  to  plant  be 
kept  ? 

6.  From  which  kernels  come  the  strongest  plants? 
Why? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  corn  i{^  planted  May  15th  and  is  struck  by  a 
frost  Sept.  1st,  how  many  days  will  it  have  in  which 
to  mature? 


84  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

2.  A  bushel  of  seed  corn  will  plant  seven  acres  in 
check  rows  and  is  worth  $2.50  per  bu.  What  is  the  cost 
of  seed  corn  per  acre  ? 

3.  A  pays  five  dollars  per  bu.  for  seed  corn,  B  pays 
$2.00  per  bu.  Each  one  plants  seven  acres  with  his  bush- 
el of  seed.  How  much  more  corn  must  A  get  per  acre 
than  B  to  pay  the  extra  amount  for  his  seed,  if  corn  the 
following  fall  is  worth  40c  per  bu.  ? 

TESTING   SEED    CORN    FOR   GERMINATION. 

Germination. — A  s'eed  is  said  to  germinate  when  it 
sprouts  or  begins  to  grow.  Most  farmers  are  careful  to 
use  kernels  from  the  middle  of  the  ears  of  corn,  because 
the  kernels  are  more  even  in  size  and  shape  and  the  corn 
planter,  can,  therefore,  drop  the  required  number,  usu- 
ally three,  to  every  hill.  Suppose  one  ear  of  corn  which 
has  five  hundred  kernels  has  been  frozen  or  otherwise 
injured  so  that  the  embryo  in  each  kernel  is  dead.  If 
the  corn  planter  drops  one  of  thes^e  bad  kernels  with 
two  good  ones  in  every  hill  until  the  five  hundred  bad 
kernels  are  all  planted,  there  will  be  five  hundred  hills 
each  with  one  stalk  missing.  This  would  reduce  a,  farm- 
er's yield;  and  the  more  of  such  ears  he  planted,  the 
greater  would  be  the  reduction  of  his  yield.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  all  the  seeds  dropped  in  every  hill  were  seeds 
that  would  grow,  the  farmer  could  be  sure  of  a  good  stand 
of  corn.  This  is  important,  because  it  costs  as  much  to 
prepare  the  land,  plant  and  cultivate  the  crop  for  a  poor 
stand  as  it  does  for  a  good  stand. 

Will  It  Grow? — One  cannot  always  tell  by  looking  at  an 
ear  of  corn  whether  or  not  the  kernels  will  grow.  A 
farmer,  to  make  sure  he  is  planting  only  good  seed,  must 
test  his  corn.  He  may  test  one  hundred  kernels  taken 
at  random  from  a  number  of  ears  or  a  sack  of  corn,  but 
if  he  finds  that  only  80  per  cent  of  his  corn  will  grow  he 
must  use  this  poor  seed  or  buy  seed.  A  much  safer  and 
a  very  easy  and  sample  way  is  to  test  each  ear  before  it 


TESTING    SEED    CORN    FOR    GERMINATION. 


85 


Fig.  34. — A  simple  terminator  consist- 
ing of  a  plate  partly  filled  with  sand, 
a  cloth  marked  in  squares  for  the 
corn  from  each  ear  to  be  tested,  and 
the  cloth  and  plate  with  which  to 
cover  the  corn. 


is  shelled.  One  wants  to  know  if  all  or  most  of  the 
kernels  on  an  ear  of  corn  will  sprout  or  grow.  If  he 
takes  ten  kernels  from  one  ear,  and  finds  that  all  of  the 

ten  kernels  sprout,  he 
can  safely  assume  that 
the  rest  of  the  kernels 
on  that  ear  will  grow. 
That  is  a  good  ear  for 
liim  to  plant. 

If  he  takes  ten  ker- 
nels from  another  ear. 
and  finds  that  none  or 
less  than  half  of  them 
sprout,  he  rightly  as- 
sumes that  the  rest  of 
the  kernels  on  that  ear 
would  not  be  likely  to 
grow.  That  is  not  a  safe 
ear  to  plant. 

To  Test  Corn. — By  testing  each  ear  one  may  throw  out 
the  poor  ones  and  save  the  good  ones,  which  enables  him  to 
use  his  own  seed  and  to  be  sure  of  planting  only  good  seed. 
A  simple  germinator  may  be  made  as  follows :  On  a  piece 
of  white  outing  flannel  draw  with  a  soft  pencil  a  six-inch 
square,  and  mark  it  off  into  nine  two-inch  squares,  num- 
bering the  small  squares  from  one  to  nine.  Place  the  cloth 
thus  marked  over  a  plate  of  sand  or  dirt.  The  next  step 
is  to  number  nine  ears  of  corn.  This  is  easily  done  by  fas- 
tening a  small  tag  to  the  butt  of  each  ear  of  corn  with  a 
pin,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35.  Take  ten  kernels  from  ear  No.  1, 
selecting  them  from  different  parts  of  the  ear,  and  plaee 
them  on  square  No.  1.  Continue  until  each  square  is  sup- 
plied with  ten  kernels  from  the  ear  of  the  corresponding 
number.  Moisten  the  material  in  the  plate  thoroughly, 
cover  with  another  cloth  and  another  plate,  to  prevent  too 
rapid  evaporation,  and  set  in  a  warm  place.  Put  up  care- 
fully the  nine  ears  of  corn  for  future  comparison. 

The  germinator  should  be  examined  from  time  to  time 


86  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

to  note  the  germination  of  the  kernels.  If  kept  warm  and 
moist  the  corn  should  all  germinate  in  five  to  eight  days. 
Kernels  slow  in  germinating  should  be  counted  as  worth- 
less, as  they  would  probably  not  grow  in  the  field  if  unfa- 
vorable conditions  prevailed. 

For  testing  a  large  amount  of  seed  corn,  as  for  ten  to 
forty  acres,  a  box  two  to  four  feet  square  may  be  used  in 
place  of  the  plates. 


!!•#«#  #€^;#« 


Fig.  35. — Nine  ear^  of  seed  corn  numbered  for  testing. 


Questions : 

1.  For  what  reason  should  a  farmer  test  his  seed 
corn? 

2.  What  are  the  adA^antages  of  testing  each  ear  over 
testing  100  kernels  out  of  a  sack  full  of  shelled  corn? 

3.  How  would  you  proceed  to  test  200  ears  of  corn? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  seven  of  the  ten  kernels  taken  from  an  ear  of 
corn  grow,  what  per  cent  does  the  ear  germinate  ?  If  nine 
kernels  grow,  what  per  cent  germinates? 

2.  If  twenty  ears  of  corn  will  plant  one  acre,  what  per 
cent  of  the  corn  in  a  field  will  be  missing  if  the  corn  from 
one  of  the  twenty  ears  will  not  grow?  If  the  corn  from 
three  ears  will  not  grow  ? 

3.  If  a  man  tests  400'  ears  of  corn,  and  90  per  cent  of 
the  ears  are  good  enough  to  plant,  how  many  acres  of 
corn  will  the  good  seed  plant?  (Assume  that  twenty  ears 
will  plant  an  acre.) 

4.  A  man  can  test  400  ears  of  corn  in  6  hours.  His 
time  is  worth  14  cents  per  hour.     If  the  400  ears  will  plant 


CORN   CULTURE.  87 

18  acres,  how  much  does  it  cost  him  per  acre  to  test  his 
corn?  If  com  is  worth  30  cents  per  bujshel  in  the  fall,  how 
much  more  corn  per  acre  must  a  farmer  get  to  pay  him 
for  thus  testing  his  seed  ? 

CORN    CULTURE. 

The  Corn  Field, — In  the  spring,  of  the  year,  when  most 
farmers  are  preparing  their  fields  for  corn,  will  be  a  good 
time  to  study  the  planting  phase  of  the  corn  subject.  In 
the  first  place  let  us  see  on  what  kind  of  soil  our  neigh- 
bors and  fathers  and  brothers  are  to  plant  corn.  Land 
that  produced  clover  or  was  pastured  last  year  is  best,  as 
the  clover  and  grass  roots  have  filled  the  soil  with  vege- 
table matter,  a  very  necessary  condition  for  good  crops. 
It  would  be  better  if  the  land  were  plowed  last  fall,  as  fall 
plowing  gives  the  soil  a  chance  to  settle  so  it  will  not 
dry  out  readily. 

Fall  plowed  land  should  be  thoroughly  disked  in 
spring,  before  planting  to  corn,  to  insure  a  fine,  mellow 
seed  bed,  to  destroy  weeds  and  to  form  a  surface  mulch  to 
check  the  evaporation  of  water. 

If  there  is  no  clovei"  or  pasture  sod  for  corn,  other  well 
drained  land,  fall  plowed,  well  manured  and  the  manure 
thoroughly  disked  into  the  surface  of  the  soil  before 
planting,  is  the  next  best  place  for  corn.  The  effort  in 
any  case  should  be  to  have  a  rich,  firm  soil,  with  a  couple 
of  inches  of  loose  soil  on  top  to  check  the  evaporation  of 
moisture. 

Seed  corn  should  be  the  best  that  can  be  secured,  and 
should  have  been  thoroughly  tested  to  make  sure  it  will 
grow  when  planted. 

Grade  Seed  Com. — Practically  all  corn  is  now  planted 
with  a  machine,  and  unless  the  kernels  are  of  uniform  size 
no  machine  can  drop  the  same  number  of  kernels  in  each 
hill,  and  it  is  important  to  get  the  right  number  of  kernels 
per  hill. 

As  corn  is  shelled  from  the  ear  there  is  always  more  or 
less  irregularity  in  the  kernels.     This!  is  especially  true  if 


88  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

the  tip  and  butt  kernels  are  shelled  with  the  rest.  Even 
if  this  is  not  done  there  are  some  irregular  kernels  in  the 
middle  of  the  ear,  owing  to  imperfect  growth.  Examine 
an  ear  of  corn  and  you  will  see  the  irregular  kernels  at 
the  tip  and  butt  and  a  few  in  the  middle.  Irregular  ker- 
nels are  easily  removed  from  any  sample  of  corn  by  run- 
ning it  through  any  of  the  modern  corn  graders. 


J 

,,HnH||H| 

^^^^K,          ■ 

1 

^^^^^1 

.^M 

^^^^E^ 

Pig.  36. — (A)  Corn  as  shelled  from  whole  cob.  (B)  Corn  after  it 
has  been  graded.  Note  uniformity  of  kernels.  (C)  Small  and 
irregular  kernels  removed  by  the  grader. 


Com  graders  are  fitted  with  screens  with  holes  of  cer- 
tain sizes  and  shapes.  As  the  corn  is  run  through,  all  of 
the  small  and  irregular  kernels  are  separated  out,  leaving 
only  the  regular  ones  and  the  kind  a  planter  can  plant  uni- 
formly. A  com  grader  will  cost  about  $10.00,  and  is  well 
worth  the  money  to  any  one  who  is  planting  any  consid- 
enable  amount  of  corn.  If  one  has  no  corn  grader  it  is 
certainly  advisable  to  shell  oft'  tip  and  butt  kernels  and 
keep  'them  out  of  the  seed  corn. 


CORN   CULTURE. 


89 


Fig-.  37. — Planting  Corn.  Straight 
rows  indicate  good  workmanship 
and  a  joy  throughout  the  year. 


Planting. — Corn  is  as  a  rule  planted  in  May.  There 
is,  however,  no  set  date  for  planting,  but  a  good  practice 
to  follow  is  to  plant  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can 

be  and  is  well  prepared 
and  is  warm  enough  so 
the  seed  will  germinate. 
There  is  nothing  gained 
by  planting  corn  in 
cold,  wet,  poorly  pre- 
pared soil,  for  in  such 
condition,  seed,  even  if 
good,  is  very  liable  to 
rot  in  the  ground. 

Probably  one  very 
general  mistake  is  made 
in  planting  corn  too 
deep.  Corn  cannot  be 
made  to  root  deep  sim- 
ply by  planting  deep.  The  roots  will  go  wherever  the 
soil  conditions  are  most  favorable.  On  ordinary  land 
it  is  not  wise  to  plant  corn  more  than  from  one  to  two 
inches  deep. 

Questions : 

1.  What  is  a  good  crop  to  precede  the  corn  crop  ? 

2.  Why  would  you  prefer  fall  plowing  to  spring 
plowing  for  corn  ? 

3.  What  is  gained  by  grading  seed  corn? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  It  costs  10  cts  per  bu.  to  grade  seed  corn;  what 
does  it  cost  per  acre  if  a  bushel  of  corn  will  plant  7  acres? 

2.  If  a  man  were  to  spend  five  hours  shelling  off  tip 
and  butt  kernels  and  picking  out  irregular  kernels  from 
a  bushel  of  seed  corn,  how  much  would  it  cost  him  if 
his  time  is  worth  14  cts  per  hour?  How  much  would  it 
cost  him  per  acre?     (See  example  1.) 


90  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

REASONS    FOR    THE    CU  LTIVATION    OF    CORN. 

Moisture  in  the  Soil. — The  more  information  one 
gains  concerning  any  line  of  work  the  more  interesting 
will  that  work  be  to  him.  As  cnltivation  has  more  to  do 
with  the  production  of  good  crops  of  corn  than  has  any 
other  operation,  it  should  be  done  intelligently. 

One  of  the  main  reasons  for  cultivating  corn  is  to  save 
moisture  in  the  soil.  There  are  two  ways  by  which 
moisture  is  taken  from  the  soil:  first,  by  the  growing 
crops  and,  second,  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  The  water  that  is  evaporated  is  worse  than 
w^asted.  It  is  lost  to  the  crop  and  its  evaporation  tends 
to  make  the  soil  cooler.  (Demonstrate  this  by  moisten- 
ing the  hand  and  exposing  it  to  the  air.)  The  hot  sun 
and  the  moving  air,  the  wind,  greatly  hasten  evaporation, 
hence  it  is  evident  that  if  the  part  of  the  soil  in  which  the 
moisture  is  held  can  be  separated  from  the  sun  and  wind 
much  les^  moisture  w411  be  lost  l^y  evaporation. 

Movement  of  Moisture. — Moisture  moves  in  the  soil 
by  capillary  force.  For  example,  two  particles  of  sand  lie 
close  together  and  one  is  wetter  than  the  other.  The 
dryer  one  will  attract  some  of  the  water  from  the  other 
until  they  both  are  equally  w^et.  This  capillary  move- 
ment of  water  may  be  seen  very  plainly  by  following  this 
plan  as  suggested :  Fill  a  glass  half  full  of  sand  and  pour 
in  enough  water  to  thoroughly  wet  the  sand,  being  care- 
ful not  to  wet  the  sides  of  the  glass.  Now  fill  the  glass 
with  dry  fine  sand  and  watch  the  moisture  creep  upward. 
The  water  is  moving  by  capillary  attraction.  Moisture 
will  move  by  capillary  force  in  any  direction,  but  always 
from  moist  to  dryer  soil. 

Surface  Mulch. — If  you  will  go  out  in  a  field,  on  a 
bright  day,  where  cultivation  is  being  done,  you  will 
notice  that  very  soon  after  the  cultivator  hasi  gone  over 
the  ground  the  surface  soil  begins  to  look  dry,  while  the 
surface  soil  where  it  has  not  been  cultivated  appears  more 
moist.  Moisture  is  being  evaporated  from  both  surfaces, 
but  where  the  soil  is  firm  moisture  moves  up'  from  below 


REASONS   FOR   CULTIVATION   OF  CORN. 


91 


to  replace  that  evaporated ;  and  this  process  will  continue, 
if  not  checked,  until  the  soil  is:  robbed  of  all  available 
moisture.  The  cultivated  portion  is  so  loose  that  the 
moisture  cannot  readily  pass  up  through  it,  as  the  par- 
ticles of  soil  are  not  close  together,  hence  evaporation  is 
checked.  The  soil  made  loose  by  the  cultivator  separates 
the  moist  soil  from  the  sun  and  wind  and  evaporation 
takes  place  very  slowly,  because  itjs  difficult  for  water  to 
pass  through  loose  soil.  Tn  this  way  cultivation  con- 
serves moisture. 


Fig.  38. — A  Two-Row  Cultivator  at  Work.  Many  farmers  are  now 
using  these  larger  machines.  One  man  can  do  nearly  twice  as  much 
work  with  such  a  machine  as  he  can  with  a  one  row  cultivator. 


Too  much  attention  can  hardly  be  given  to  maintain- 
ing thisi  surface  mulch,  or  loose  soil  on  top,  for  as  soon 
as  the  surface  soil  becomes  packed  against'  the  moist  soil 
below,  the  moisture  moves  to  the  surface,  where  more  wa- 
ter may  be  lost  by  evaporation  than  is  used  by  the  grow- 
ing crop,  A  shower  of  rain  just  sufficient  to  pack  the 
siurface  may  be  more  injurious  than  beneficial  to  a  crop, 
by  causing  a  great  loss  of  moisture,  unless  the  soil  is 
cultivated  soon  after  the  shower. 

Destroy  Weeds. — Another  reason  for  cultivating  is 
to  destroy  weeds.     The  smaller  the  weeds)  are  the  easier 


92  AGRICUI.TURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

it  is  to  kill  them.  On  this  account  it  is  important  that 
soil  be  so  worked  that  most  of  the  weeds  are  destroyed 
before  the  corn  is'  planted,  as  it  is  difficult  to  cultivate 
very  young  corn  a.nd  the  weeds  may  get  ahead  of  the 
corn.  It  is  also  cheaper  to  cultivate  with  a  large  har- 
row than  with  a  cultivator.  Of  course  corn  may  be  har- 
rowed after  it  is  planted  or  even  after  it  is  up,  but  the 
less  harrowing  necessary  at  this'  time  the  better,  as  more 
or  less  corn  is  injured  every  time  the  field  is  harrowed. 

There  are  usually  fields  in  the  neighborhood  that  were 
not  well  prepared  before  the  corn  was'  planted.  In  such 
fields  it  will  be  observed  that  the  weeds  get  quite  large 
before  the  com  is  large  enough  to  be  cultivated.  In 
fields  well  prepared  before  corn  is  planted  very  few  weeds 
will  be  seen,  and  those  appearing  are  small  and  easily 
killed  at  the  first  cultivation. 

Aerate  Soil. — The  third  reason  for  cultivating  is  to 
aerate  the  soil,  i.  e.,  to  open  it  and  let  air  into  it.  This 
stimulates)  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter,  thus 
more  plant  food  is  liberated. 

Still  another  reason  for  cultivation  is  to  keep  the  soil 
loose,  that  rain  w^hich  falls  may  be  readily  absorbed,  thus 
making  a  larger  stipply  upon  which  to  draw  when  a  dry 
spell  comes. 

Questions : 

1.  "What  is  the  main  reason  for  cultivating  corn? 

2.  In  what  tAvo  ways  is  moisture  taken  from  the  soil? 

3.  How  does  cultivation  check  evaporation? 

4.  Give  anothe'r  reason  for  cultivating  corn. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  team  travels  2V4  miles  to  cultivate  an  acre  of 
corn  planted  3  2-3  ft.  apart  each  w^ay.  How  far  must 
they  travel  to  cultivate  8  acres  ? 

2.  If  a  team  travels  18  miles  with  a  harrow  12  ft. 
wide,  how  much  land  would  it  harrow? 

3.  How  many  times  can  one  afford  to  harrow^  land  to 
save  one  cultivation?     (See  two  examples  above.) 


METHODS  OF  CULTIVATING  CORN.  93 

METHODS  OF  CULTIVATING   CORN. 

Depth  to  Cultivate. — There  seems  to  be  an  unsettled 
question  among  farmers  as  to  how  deep  to  cultivate  com. 
Apparently  there  is  no  rule  that  one  can  safely  follow, 
for  the  conditions  vary  with  soils  and  seasons,  so  it  is 
largely  a  matter  that  must  be  settled  by  the  individual 
farmer  and  depends  entirely  upon  the  depth  of  the  corn 
roots.  In  a  dry  loose  soil  corn  'roots  will  grow  nearly 
straight  down,  while  in  a  heavy  or  more  moist  soil 
they  will  spread  out  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Roots  naturally  grow  where  there  is  available  plant  food : 
and  that,  we  have  learned,  is  where  there  is/  heat,  air  and 
moisture.  In  wet  years  they  find  this  condition  near  the 
surface,  and  in  dry  years  or  in  dry  soil  they  must  go 
deeper  down  for  the  plant  food.  The  accompanying  cut 
shows  how  corn  roots  usually  grow.     (Fig.  39.) 

Roots  of  Corn. — A  very  interesting  study  of  the  root 
system  of  corn  may  be  made  by  taking  a  rather  blunt 
wooden  paddle  and  carefully  scraping  away  the  loose  soil 
between  two  hills  of  corn,  until  the  roots  are  exposed. 
One  may  then  observe  the  roots,  how  far  they  spread 
out  from  the  hill  of  corn  and  how  near  the  surface  they 
grow.  As  a  rule,  when  the  corn  is  a  foot  high  the  roots 
from  the  rows  will  be  overlapping  and  within  one  to  four 
inches  from  the  surface,  depending  upon  how  wet  the 
soil  is  and  how  recently  and  how  deeply  cultivated. 

Results  of  Deep  Cultivation. — From  the  above  facts 
it  is  quite  evident  that  if  the  cultivator  is  run  too  deep 
some  of  the  roots  will  be  cut  off.  The  roots  are  the  feed- 
ers of  the  plants,  consequently  every  one  that  is  cut  off 
decreases  the  amount  of  moisture  and  plant  food  the  plant 
will  get.  The  effects  of  too  deep  cultivation  may  be  seen 
by  cutting  down  in  the  soil  four  inches,  with  a  sharp 
spade,  two  to  four  inches  from  a  hill  of  corn.  Then  note 
results.  If  it  is  a  dry,  hot  day  the  leaves  will  soon  begin 
to  curl  up  on  the  plant  thus  injured,  showing  that  a  por- 
tion of  its  water  supply  has  been  cut  off. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  cultivate  to  kill  weeds,  to 
let  air  into  the  soil  and  to  form  a  surface  mulch  to  save 


94 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


moisture ;  and  many  times  it  is  necessarj^  to  cultivate  deep 
enough  to  injure  corn  roots  in  order  to  accomplish  these 
various  things ;  but  the  aim  should  always  be  to  cultivate 
no  deeper  than  necessary. 

If  deep  cultivation  is  to  be  practiced  at  all  it  should  be 
done  while  the  corn  is  small,  as  it  is  injured  less  at  this 
time. 

Cultivator. — The  kind  of  cultivator  used  has  much  to 
do  with  the  depth  of  cultivation.     If  a  cultivator  with 

two  large  shovels  on 
a  side  is  used,  it  must 
be  run  deeper  to  cov- 
er all  the  space  be- 
tween the  rows,  than 
one  which  has  three, 
four  or  five  shovels  on 
a  side.  The  small  shov- 
els and  more  of  them 
do  fl  n  e  r  ,  shallower 
work  than  do  the 
large  shovels ;  but 
where  corn  has  been 
neglected  until  the 
weeds  are  large,  the 
larger  shovels  are  bet- 
ter, because  they  do 
not  clog  up  so  easily 
and  because  they  plow 
out  the  weeds  instead 
of   cultivating   them. 

Surface  Cultiva- 
tors.— At  present 
many  farmers  are 
using  what  are  called  surface  cultivators.  In  place  of 
shovels  there  are  two  or  more  knives  or  blades  that  run 
an  inch  or  so  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  separating 
the  surface  soil  from  the  soil  below  and  cutting  off  just 
below  the  surface  all  weeds  growing  between  the  rows. 
If  possible,  examine  cultivators  with  these  different  kinds 
of  shovels  and  note  the  work  they  do. 


Fig.   39. — Shows  the   Root   System  of 
Corn,  Kansas  Bui.  No.  147. 


METHODS  OF  CULTIVATING  CORN.  95 

Check  vs.  Drills. — Many  farmers  drill  in  their  corn, 
i.  e.,  plant  it  in  rows  only  one  way.  It  can  then  be  cul- 
tivated only  one  way  and  the  weeds  growing  between  the 
hills  cannot  be  reached  with  the  cultivator.  If  these 
weeds  cannot  be  covered  by  so  running  the  cultivator 
as  to  throw  dirt  against  the  rows  they  must  be  pulled 
by  hand  or  allowed  to  grow. 

Other  farmers  plant  their  cqrn  in  check  rows.  As 
they  can  then  cultivate  it  both  ways  they  can  get  all  the 
weeds  with  the  cultivator,  excepting  an  occasional  one 
growing  in  the  hills.  Try  to  look  over  fields  of  corn 
planted  each  of  these  ways,  at  different  times  during  the 
summer,  and  see  which  fields  are  the  cleaner.  If  you  can 
find  corn  planted  each  way  in  the  same  field  or  on  the 
same  farm,  and  receiving  the  same  number  of  cultivations, 
it  will  be  a  better  comparison.  As  one  of  the  main  objects 
in  growing  corn  is  to  clean  the  land  of  weeds,  it  is  better 
on  weedy  land  to  plant  corn  so  it  can  be  cultivated  both 
ways.  If  corn  is  cultivated  both  ways  it  is  easier  to 
keep  the  surface  smooth  and  level;  which  is  desirable, 
as  a  ridged  surface  is  hard  to  work  down,  and  more  sur- 
face is  exposed,  causing  more  evaporation. 

Questions : 

1.  AVhy  is  it  not  wise  to  cultivate  corn  too  deeply? 

2.  What  can  you  say  about  different  types  of  cul- 
tivators ? 

3.  What  can  you  say  about  planting  corn  in  drills 
or  in  check  rows? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  The  time  of  a  man  and  team  is  worth  $3.50  per 
day.  What  is  the  cost  per  acre  to  cultivate,  if  they  cul- 
tivate 8  acres  per  day?  How  much  does  it  cost  to  cul- 
tivate an  acre  of  corn  six  times  ^ 

2.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  at  40c  per  bushel  must 
a  farmer  get  to  pay  for  cultivating  his  corn  six  times? 

3.  The  time  of  a  man  and  three  horses  is  worth  $4.25. 
What  is  the  cost  per  acre  if  they  cultivate  14  acres  per 
day?     (Three  horses  can  handle  a  two-row  cultivator.) 


96 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


SELECTION  OF  SEED  CORN. 

Selection  Neglected. — A  comparatively  small  amount 
of  seed  corn  is  needed  each  year,  on  the  average  farm, 

as  one  bushel  will  plant  from 
six  to  eight  acres.  On  this  ac- 
count the  matter  of  saving  seed 
corn  is  liable  to  be  neglected,  as 
farmers  are  very  busy  in  the 
fall  with  other  duties.  Were  the 
saving  of  the  price  of  seed  the 
only  advantage  gained  in  se- 
lecting seed  corn  on  the  home 
farm,  one  might  be  justified  in 
neglecting  it.  But  this  is  by 
no  means  the  case. 

Adapted  to  Localities. — 
Corn  in  some  respects  is  a  ten- 
der plant,  very  easily  af- 
fected; unfavorably  by  cold 
weather  conditions  or  cold  wet 
soil,  and  favorably  by  warm 
weather  and  warm  soil.  On 
this  account  corn  grown  under 
one  condition  for  several  years 
becomes  adapted  to  those  con- 
ditions and  is  not  well  suited  to 
other  conditions.  No  locality  is 
suited  to  produce  seed  corn  for 
any  very  large  territory.  Com 
that  does  well  in  the  north  will 
grow  and  do  well  farther  south, 
but  as  a  rule  a  larger  corn  can 
be  produced  on  most  of  the  well 
drained  soils  in  the  south,  and 
will  yield  more  than  the  com- 
paratively small  com  grown 
farther  north.  Corn  suited  to 
Indiana  conditions  will  grow  if  planted  in 
Northern     Minnesota,     but     in     average    years     it    will 


Fig.  40. — Two  varieties  of 
Dent  Corn  growing  side 
by  side  and  given  similar 
treatment.  The  variety 
on  the  right  is  mature,  as 
shown  by  the  drooping 
ears;  the  one  on  the  left 
is  still  quite  green,  as 
shown  by  the  erect  ears. 
Both  varieties  are  Yel- 
low Dent  Corn,  but  one 
has  been  made  later  than 
the  other  by  being  grown 
under  different  condi- 
tions. 


SELECTION    OF  SEED   CORN.  97 

not  mature  well,  as  the  season  is  too  short. 
The  same  varied  conditions  may  be  found  on  dif- 
ferent farms  in  the  same  locality.  Farms  with  a  light, 
warm  soil,  or  well-drained  farms  on  which  the  soil  is  kept 
highly  productive  by  good  methods  of  cropping,  ma- 
nuring, etc.,  can  grow  and  mature  a  larger  variety  of 
corn  than  can  farms  in  the  same  neighborhood  with 
heavy,   poorly  drained  soils  or  soils  in  poor  condition. 

If  one  wishes  to  get  the  best  results  from  growing 
corn,  he  cannot  afford  to  neglect  selecting  his  own  seed 
from  his  own  farm.  By  selecting  the  best  ears  of  corn 
from  the  best  stalksi  one  gets  seed  from  the  plants  that 
are  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  farm,  as  shown 
by  their  superior  development  the  previous  year". 

Large  Varieties. — ^A  mistake  very  commonly  made  is 
to  select  too  large  or  too  late  a  variety  of  corn.  Every 
one  likes  to  grow  large  ears  of  corn,  and  on  this  account, 
when  seed  is  secured  from  some  other  community  or 
from  seedmen,  a  larger  variety  than  is  suited  to  the  con- 
ditions is  liable  to  be  chosen.  Large  ears  of  corn  are 
not  necessary  to  large  yields,  and  it  is  far  better  to  be 
sure  of  a  good  crop,  by  using  a  variety  that  will  mature, 
than  to  attempt  to  grow  too  large  a  variety  and  have 
a  partial  or  complete  failure  occasionally. 

Varieties  May  be  Made  Larger. — It  is  well  to  select 
a  variety  of  corn  that  will  be  quite  sure  to  mature  in 
your  locality.  If  the  soil  is  well  drained,  well  cultivated 
and  kept  at  a  high  state  of  productivity  by  growing 
clover  occasionally  and  by  keeping  live  stock  and  ma- 
nuring it,  and  if  the  climate  will  permit  of  the  growing 
of  a  larger  variety,  one  can  in  a  few  years  make  the 
variety  larger  by  selecting  the  larger  ears.  Such  con- 
ditions will  practically  insure  a  good  crop  of  corn  each 
year,  unless  one  selects  too  large  ears  and  thus  makes 
his  variety  too  late.  If  in  a  few  years  you  cannot 
improve  the  corn  to  the  size  you  wish  it,  it  is  undoubted- 
ly due  to  the  fact  that  your  conditions  are  not  favor- 
able for  a  larger  variety,  and  were  you  to  get  a  larger 
variety   from  some   other   locality  you  would   be   very 


98  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

likely  to  lose  your  crop  or  have  soft  corn,  in  the  ordi- 
nary years. 

To  Make  a  Variety  Early. — If  one  wishes  to  make  a 
variety  of  corn  he  is  growing  earlier,  he  can  do  it  by  se- 
lecting the  ears  that  ripen  first.  Such  a  selection  can- 
not be  made  after  all  of  the  corn  is  ripened.  If  one  can- 
not select  seed  when  the  corn  is  ripening,  he  can  make 
some  progress  toward  earliness  by  selecting  the  small 
ears  of  com  with  comparatively  shallow  kernels.  Large 
ears  with  deep  kernels  are  very  seldom  found  in  an  early 
variety  of  corn. 
Questions : 

1.  Give  two  reasons  why  it  is  adv^isable  for  a  farm- 
er to  select  his  own  seed  corn  from  his  own  farm. 

2.  Why  is  it  better  to;  have  a  A^ariety  of  corn  that  is 
a  little  too  small  rather  than  one  that  is  too  large? 

3.  Give  two  ways  by  which  a  variety  of  corn  may  be 
made  larger. 

4.  If  you  wish  to  get  corn  that  will  ripen  earlier, 
how  and  when  would  you  select  it  in  the  field?  How 
would  you  select  it  from  a  large  number  of  husked  ears  ? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  A  plants  7  acres  of  corn  with  1  bu.  of  seed  and 
it  yields  40  bu.  per  acre.  How  many  bushels  of  corn 
does  he  get?  Extra  good  seed  would  have  increased  the 
yield  10  per  cent.  How  many  more  bu.  of  corn  would 
he  have  received  had  he  used  good  seed?  How  much 
would  the  increased  yield  be  worth  at  40c  per  bu.  ?  How 
much  would  a  bushel  of  extra  good  seed  corn  have  been 
worth  to  that  farmer? 

2.  There  are  3240  hills  of  corn  on  an  acre  when 
planted  44  inched  apart  each  way.  If  one  gets  3  10-oz. 
ears  from  each  hill,  how  many  bushels  of  corn  will  he 
produce  ? 

HOW  TO  SELECT  SEED  CORN. 

Kind  to  Select. — If  one  is  to  get  the  best  seed  ears 
from  a  field  of  corn,  he  must  have  well  in  mind  what  a 
really  good  ear  of  corn  looks  like,  and  select  only  such 
ears.     A  great  advantage  of  selecting  seed  corn  in  the 


HOW  TO  SELECT  SEED  CORN.  99 

field  over  selecting  it  from  a  load  of  husked  corn  is  that 
the  stalks  may  be  considered  as  well  as  the  ears.  No 
matter  how  good  an  ear  of  corn  may  be,  it  should  not 
be  taken  from  a  poor  plant.  Usually  good  ears  come 
from  good  plants,  but  there  are  exceptions.  It  is  well 
to  select  more  seed  com  than  is  needed,  then  another 
and  more  careful  selection  may  be  made  in  the  spring 
before  planting. 

Time  to  Select  Seed  Com. — In  order  that  seed  corn 
may  be  sure  to  keep  over  winter  and  still  germinate 
readily  it  must  be  taken  from  the  husk  and  placed  where 
it  can  dry  out  before  freezing  weather.  If  one  weighs 
an  ear  of  freshly  husked  ripe  corn,  then  leaves  it  in  a 
living  room  for  a  month  and  weighs  it  again,  he  will  find 
that  it  has  lost  in  weight.  The  loss  in  weight  is  from 
the  evaporation  of  moisture.  Moisture  is  detrimental  to 
seed  corn. 

Condition. — The  first  thing  to  consider  in  an  ear  of 
corn  for  seed  is  condition.  It  must  be  firm  and  solid 
to  the  touch  and  the  kernels  should  not  be  loose  on  the 
cob.  Loose  kernels  indicate  immature  ears,  which  must 
be  avoided,  as  corn  from  such  ears  is  not  likely  to  ger- 
minate and  if  the  kernels  do  germinate  the  plants  are 
quite  likely  to  be  weak.  The  kernels  should  be  bright  in 
color  and  free  from  mould  or  other  injury. 

Shape  of  Ear. — Ears  should  be  uniform  in  shape  and 
size,  and  each  ear  should  be  as  nearly  the  same  size  at 
tip  and  butt  as  possible.  The  tips  should  be  well  filled 
out,  as  this  indicates  hardiness  and  well-matured  corn. 
Large  butts  should  be  avoided  as  they  indicate  coarse- 
ness and  are  hard  to  dry  out.  There  are,  also,  more  ir- 
regular kernels  on  these  large  butts  than  on  properly 
formed  butts. 

The  rows  of  kernels  should  be  straight,  as  crooked 
rows  indicate  an  imperfect  type,  which  is  as  undesirable 
in  corn  as  in  animals.  If  the  rows  are  crooked  there  are 
more  irregular  kernels.  These  are  undesirable,  as  they 
cannot  be  planted  uniformly  with  a  planter. 


100 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


Size  of  Ear.— The  size  of  ears  will  depend  upon  the 
variety  and  the  locality.  But  do  not  select  too  large 
ears,  as  they  will  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  variety 
later;  which  may  result  in  considerable  loss  in  unfavor- 
able weather.  Select  the  medium  sized,  well  matured 
ears  as  nearly  uniform  in  size  as  possible. 

Kernels. — Ears  with  kernels  as  nearly  uniform  in  type 
asj  possible  should  be  selected.  There  are  good  ears  of 
corn  with  different  types  of  kernels,  but  for  any  one  va- 
riety it  is  important  that  the  kernels  be  uniform,  as  only 
such  kernels   can  be  planted  uniformly   by  machinery. 

The  most  desirable  ker- 
nels are  deep,  which  in- 
dicates a  large  amount 
of  corn  in  proportion 
to  cob,  but  the  point 
can  easily  be  overdone, 
as  deep  kerneled  vari- 
eties are  usually  late  in 
ripening. 

Space  between  Ker- 
nels.— It  is  desirable  to 
have  just  as  much  corn 
around  the  cob  as  pos- 
sible, consequently  any 
space  between  the  ker- 
nels is  to  be  avoided. 
These  spaces  are  caus- 
ed by  rounded  kernels, 
and  are  more  common 
and  larger  in  flint  than 
in  dent  varieties. 

Selecting". — It  is  a 
comparatively  vs  m  a  1 1 
task  to  go  through 
the  field  with  a  sack  and  select  the  desired  ears,  or 
when  the  corn  is  husked  from  the  standing  stalks  the 
ears  may  be  selected  as  the  husking  is  being  done  and 
the  seed  ears  thrown  into  a  sack  or  small  box  on  the 


Fig.  41.— The  ear  on  the  left  repre- 
sents a  good  type  of  ear  to  select  for 
seed.  It  has  even,  regular  rows  and 
kernels  and  shows  a  good  proportion 
of  corn  to  cob.  The  ear  in  the  right 
is  just  opposite  in  character,  and  is 
not  a  desirable  ear  to  select. 


STORING  SEED  CORN.  101 

side  of  the  wagon.     This  is  preferable: to, '^sfei'^^^ting^t/i^' 
best  ears  frora  the  load  or  crib  after, it, is  husked,  as  the^ 
stalks  may  be  considered  in  the  sel^etioii.  >  >  »'  •».;  :\'  \ 
Application. — It  is  hoped  that  the  boys  and  girls  who' 
read  this  lesson  will  take  an  interest  in  the  selection  of 
seed  corn,  and  at  least  observe  how  it  is  done  on  the 
home  farm  and  on  other  farms.     Some  of  the  spare  time 
during  the  fall  may  be  profitabl^^  spent  in  helping  with 
the  selection  of  seed,  and  much  information  gained  by 
asking  your  fathers  and  brothers  why  they  select  certain 
ears  and  discard  others.     Good  seed  corn  is  worth  from 
$2.00  to  $3.00  per  bushel,  and  if  some  boy  wishes  to  make 
a  little  spending  money  he  can  do  it  quite  easily  by  care- 
fully selecting  and  storing  a  few  bushels  of  seed  corn. 
Farmers  will  gladly  pay  a  good  price  for  such  seed. 
Questions : 

1.  When  should  seed  corn  be  selected,  and  why? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  selecting 
seed  corn  in  the  field  from  the  standing  stalk  over  se- 
lecting from  the  load  or  crib? 

3.  For  what  reasons  would  you  select  ears  that  are 
sound,  with  kernels  tight  on  the  cob  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  bushel  of  seed  corn  is  worth  $2.00  and  will  plant 
six  acres.    What  is  the  cost  of  seed  per  acre? 

2.  A  fair  sized  ear  of  corn  will  weigh  about  10  ozs. 
What  part  of  a  pound  does  it  weigh?  How  many  such 
ears  of  corn  in  a  bushel?  (A  bu.  of  ear  corn  weighs  72 
lbs.) 

3.  A  boy  selects  200  10-oz.  ears  of  seed  corn  in  one 
day.  How  many  bu.  does  he  save  ?  W^hat  is  it  worth  at 
$2.00  per  bu.  ? 

STORING   SEED    CORN. 

To  Keep  Grerm  Uninjured. — We  have  learned  (page 
82)  that  every  kernel  of  corn  contains  an  embryo  or 
germ,  which  is  a  very  small,  live  corn  plant.  If  the  ker- 
nel is  to  be  of  any  value  as  seed  this  germ  must  be  kept 
alive  and  strong.     This  little  plantlet  or  germ  is  very 


102  AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

sixoilar  to  any  plant.  Freezing,  under  certain  conditions 
of  moisture,  will  kill  it.  This  germ  can  stand  freezing 
c)My  when  requite;  dry, » as  when  in  this  condition  it  is  dor- 
mant. Trees  and  other  plants  that  live  from  year  to 
year  are  very  liable  to  be  killed  by  cold  winter  weather 
if  kept  growing  until  late  in  the  fall.  Under  normal 
conditions  such  plants  stop  growing  several  weeks  before 
cold  weather  sets  in ;  which  gives  them  a  chance  to  "hard- 
en up"  or  as  we  might  say,  "ripen."  It  is  evident,  then, 
that  if  we  would  keep  our  seed  corn  in  good  condition 
it  must  be  so  handled  as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  germ  in 
each  kernel. 

Keep  Dry. — The  first  essential  is  to  select  the  seed  ears 
before  they  have  a  chance  to  freeze  in  the  field,  for  many 
times  the  corn  may  not  become  sufficiently  ripe  to  be  thor- 
oughly dry;  and  if  not  dry,  freezing  injures  the  gorm. 
After  the  husk  has  been  removed,  the  ear  will  dry  out 
rapidly  if  placed  where  it  has  an  opportunity  to  do  so. 
Seedsmen  appreciate  the  necessity  of  drying  seed  corn 
immediately,  and  they  store  it  in  a  room  in  such  a  way 
that  air  can  circulate  about  it  freely  and  thus  carry  off 
the  moisture.  They  very  often  use  artificial  heat,  as  stove 
or  furnace  heat,  to  assist  in  this  drying  operation. 

In  the  Attic. — A  farmer,  as  a  rule,  saves  only  a  small 
amount  of  corn  and  cannot  afford  a  special  storehouse  for 
it.  Probably  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  drying  corn 
and  keeping  it  dry,  on  the  farm,  is  to'  store  it  in  the  attic 
over  the  kitchen.  Here  ventilation  can  be  supplied  by 
opening  windows,  and  the  heat  from  the  kitchen  stove  as- 
sists in  drying  out  the  corn  and  in  keeping  it  dry.  Where 
one  has  no  attic  or  has  more  corn  than  he  can  store  there 
satisfactorily,  it  may  be  placed  on  a  bam  floor  or  in  a 
vacant  room  in  the  house  or  other  building.  It  should 
not  be  piled  over  eight  to  ten  inches  deep,  as  it 
may  heat  or  sweat  if  piled  deeper.  A  good  circulation 
of  air  should  be  supplied,  as  this  aids  in  drying  the  corn, 
and  it  is  very  essential  that  it  be  thoroughly  dried  be- 
fore cold  weather.    If  corn  is  thoroughly  dried  and  kept 


STORING  SEED  CORN.  103 

dry  it  will  stand  freezing,  but  it  is  much  better  if  it  can 
be  kept  where  the  temperature  is  slightly  above  freezing. 

Seed  com  should  never  be  placed  above  a  stable  in 
which  animals  are  kept,  or  over  a  bin  of  grain,  as  the 
steam  and  breath  from  the  animals,  or  the  steam  that 
may  arise  from  a  bin  of  grain  if  it  heats  even  slightly, 
will  keep  corn  moist  enough  to  greatly  reduce  the  vi- 
tality of  the  germ. 

Good  Seed  Essential. — A  kernel  of  corn  is  a  very  little 
thing,  but  it  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  production 
of  good  yields.  But  very  little  time  is  necessary  to  se- 
lect and  care  for  all  the  seed  corn  needed  on  the  aver- 
age farm  and  very  few  farmers  can  afford  to  neglect 
this  part  of  the  farm  business. 

Neglecting  to  save  and  properly  care  for  seed  corn 
may  save  one  or  two  days'  time  in  the  fall,  but  it  may 
also  mean  that  poor  seed  corn  or  com  not  well  adapted 
to  one 's  conditions  will  have  to  be  planted  the  next  year. 
Poor  seed  corn  means  a  partial  or  total  loss  of  the  corn 
crop,  which  may  result  in  a  very  great  financial  loss. 
Questions : 

1.  What  will  injure  the  germ  in  a  kernel  of  corn? 

2.  Why  should  one  take  seed  com  in  from  the  field 
before  frost? 

3.  How  do  seedsmen  store  corn,  and  why? 

4.  How  may  farmers  store  their  seed  com? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  it  requires  20  ears  of  corn  to  plant  an  acre,  how 
many  ears  are  required  to  plant  40  acres? 

2.  If  a  man  can  select  800  ears  of  com  in  2  days, 
how  much  will  it  cost  him  to  gather  the  800  ears,  if 
his  time  is  worth  $2.00  per  day  ? 

3.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  in  800  ears  of  corn 
weighing  10  oz.  each  (70  lbs.  per  bu.)  ?  How  much  is 
it  worth  at  $2.00  per  bu.  ? 

METHODS    OF    STORING    SEED    CORN. 

Drying. — Free  circulation  of  air  about  seed  com  is 
necessary  to  dry  it  out,  consequently  many  devices  have 


104 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


been  used  for  storing  it  easily,  quickly  and  in  such  a 
way  that  this  end  will  be  accomplished. 

The  old  practice,  of  braiding  several  ears  together  by 
the  husks  and  hanging  them  up,  is  a  satisfactory  way  to 
keep  the  com,  but  requires  a  great  deal 
of  unnecessary  labor. 

A  Simple  Device. — A  very  simple 
and  practical  device  for  putting  up  seed 
corn  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  42.  This 
device  is  called  a  *'corn  tree."  Any 
boy  who  can  use  a  saw  and  hammer 
can  make  one  in  a  short  time.  To  make 
it,  saw  a  2x4,  or  better,  a  4x4  off  five 
or  six  feet  long.  To  the  bottom  end 
of  this  spike  a  plank  about  12  in. 
square,  to  form  a  base  sufficiently  large 
so  the  tree  will  stand  firmly  erect  on 
the  floor.  It  is  well  to  put  some  short 
braces  from  the  edges  of  the  plank  up 
to  the  4x4  to  stiffen  it.  A  row  of  fin- 
ishing nails,  nails  with  small  heads,  are 
driven  in  each  side  of  the  4x4  and 
about  2%  inches  apart.  An  ear  of  corn 
is  easily  stuck  on  each  nail  by  jam- 
ming it  on  butt  first.  The  nail  sticks 
into  the  pith  of  the  corn  cob.  This 
tree  may  be  placed  in  the  attic  or  any 
other  convenient  place  where  the  corn 
will  be  kept  dry.  If  the  tree  is  six 
feet  high  it  will  hold  about  100  ears 
of  corn,  or  enough  to  plant  about  five 
acres.  If  one  wishes  to  put  more  corn 
on  the  tree  the  comers  of  the  4x4  may 
be  beveled  off,  making  it  eight  sided. 
There  will  then  be  room  for  eight  rows 
of  corn.  If  this  is  done  a  tree  six  feet  high  will  hold  200 
cars.  It  is  well  to  plane  the  4x4  smooth,  so  that  num- 
bers may  be  placed  at  the  base  of  each  nail,  thus  making 
it  easy  to  number  the  ears  if  one  wishes  to  test  each  ear 
for  germination. 


Fig.  42.— A  simple 
device  for  put- 
ting up  seed  corn 
to  dry.  It  is  made 
of  a  4x4  standing 
upright  on  a 
square  peice  of 
plank  for  a  base. 
Finishing  nails 
Aine  d'riven  in 
each  side  about 
2y2  in.  apart.  An 
ear  of  corn  is 
stuck  on  each 
nail. 


METHODS   OF   STORING    SEED    CORN. 


105 


A  Large  Frame. — Another  excellent  way  of  storing 
corn  is  to  make  a  frame  4  to  6  feet  high,  and  as  long  as 
needed  or  as  is  convenient.  Boards  one  inch  thick  and 
of  the  desired  length  are  nailed  to  2x4 's  as  shown  in 
Fig.  43.  A  cross  piece  to  act  as  a  foot  is  nailed  across 
the  bottom  of  each  2x4  and  braced  to  hold  the  frame  up- 
right. •  lOd  nails  are  driven  through  the  board  frame 
about  2Vi  in.  apart  and  from  either  side,  and  slanted  up 
slightly  so  an  ear  of  corn  may  be  stuck  in  each  nail,  butt 
first.  A  frame  five  feet  high  and  five  feet  long  will  hold 
about  500  ears  of  corn  on  each  side,  or  enough  to  plant 
at  least  50  acres.  The  ears  of  com  may  be  numbered 
for  testing  if  desired. 

Slatted  Shelves. — An- 
other very  good  way  to 
store  seed  corn  is  on 
shelves  made  against 
the  wall  in  the  store 
room,  the  shelves  to  be 
made  of  narrow  strips 
instead  of  boards,  and 
but  six  to  eight  inches 
apart.  The  seed  ears  can 
be  placed  on  these 
shelves  one  or  two  deep 
and  will  readily  dry  out. 
They  may  be  easily 
numbered  for  testing  by 
sticking  small  pieces  of 
pasteboard  to  the  butt 
of  each  ear  with  a  pin. 
See  Fig.  35. 
Wire  Baskets. — Long,  slender  wire  baskets  are 
very  easily  made  of  poultry  netting  or  other  closely  woven 
fencing.  The  two  ends  of  a  strip  of  fencing  three  to  five 
feet  long  are  fastened  together,  and  a  board  or  another 
piece  of  the  netting  put  in  for  the  bottom.  Such  a  basket 
will  hold  considerable  corn,  and  hold  it  in  such  a  way  as 


Fig.     43. — ^Another    handy     device 
storing    seed    corn.      See    description 
above. 


lOG  AGRICULTURE    FOR    YOUNG    FOLKS. 

to  allow  it  to  dry  readily.  These  baskets  are  preferable 
to  the  other  methods  given  above  only  when  a  large 
amount  of  seed  corn  is  to  be  stored. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  is  a  good  circulation  of  air  about  seed  corn 
necessary  ? 

2.  Describe  a  corn  tree. 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  use  of  wire  baskets  for 
storing  seed  corn? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  feet  oi  lumber  in  a  piece  of  4x4  6  ft. 
long?     How  much  is  it  worth  at  $30  per  thousand. feet? 

2.  If  it  takes  about  2  hours  to  make  a  corn  tree,  how 
much  does  it  cost  for  labor  if  the  boy's  time  is  worth  6 
cents  per  hour? 

3.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  required  to  make  a 
frame  5  ft.  square  as  shown  and  described  on  page  101? 


CHAPTER  VT. 
POTATOES. 

THE    POTATO    CROP. 

Importance. — The  potato  crop  generally  receives  very 
little  attention,  yet  nearly  every  farmer  raises  enough 
for  his  own  use  at  least.  Potatoes  form  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  Nation's  daily  food. 

The  potato  crop  bears  an  important  relation  to  the 
business  of  the  farm.  If  they  are  raised  in  any  great 
quantity  they  are  one  of  the  cash  crops.  That  is,  they 
are  usually  sold  for  cash,  the  same  as  wheat,  instead  of 
being  fed  on  the  farm,  as  hay  or  corn  or  such  root  crops 
as  mangels  and  turnips. 

Co^  Per  Acre. — A  potato  crop  represents  a  much 
more  intensive  system  of  farming  than  does  the  raising 
of  grain  or  hay.  The  crop  requires  a  greater  amount  of 
labor  per  acre,  and  as  a  rule  yields  a  much  larger  in- 
come in  return.  It  cosrts  on  the  average  about  $25.00 
per  acre  to  produce  a  crop  of  potatoes,  compared  with 
about  $9.00  per  acre  to  produce  wheat  and  $7.00  per 
acre  to  produce  hay  (two  crops  in  one  year).  The  av- 
erage yield  of  potatoes  in  the  United  States  for  several 
years  is  about  90  bushels  per  acre  and  the  average 
price  about  55  cts.  per  bu.  Thus  the  crop  brings  an 
average  gross  income  of  about  $50.00  per  acre.  The  av- 
erage yield  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  is  about  14 
bushels  per  acre,  which  at  the  average  price  (73c) 
yields  a  product  worth  about  $10.00. 

There  is  much  more  work  required  to  raise  an  acre 
of  potatoes!  than  to  raise  an  acre  of  grain,  yet  the  larger 
yield  in  money  value  makes  them  at  least  as  profitable, 
and  often  much  more  profitable  to  grow  than  grain. 

If  a  farmer  has  but  a  small  amount  of  tillable  land 
he  can  often  get  as  large  an  income  from  a  few  acres 
of  potatoes  well  cared  for  as  many  farmers)  get  from  a 
hundred  acres  of  grain. 


108  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Undesirable  Features. — There  are  several  reasons  why 
potatoes  are  not  more  largely  grown,  (1)  Most  farms 
in  the  northwest  are  large,  and  the  farmers  favor  crops 
that  require  less  labor  than  the  potato  crop  requires. 
(2)  Potatoes  are  a  bulky  crop  and  rather  expensive  to 
market.  Often,  where  they  must  be  hauled  several  miles 
to  a  railroad  or  shipped  for  a  long  distance,  the  cost  of 
marketing  is  so  high  that  little  is  left  to  pay  the  farmer 
for  growing  them.     (3)    Potatoes  are  a  perishable  crop. 


Fig.  44. — A  potato  field  on  farm  of  Mr.  C.  E.  Brown,  Elk  River,  Minn. 
Note   scarcity   of   weeds   and  straight   rows. 

They  cannot  be  held  over  to  wait  for  a  higher  price,  as 
can  grain  or  hay.  (4)  On  account  of  potato  bugs  the 
vines  must  be  sprayed  with  poison  several  times,  which 
is  quite  expensive.  (5)  A  disease  known  as  blight  often 
attacks  the  leaves  and  causes  small  yields  and  rotten 
potatoes.  The  tubers  often  rot  in  the  ground,  probably 
due  to  some  other  disease  not  well  understood.  (6) 
Scab,  which  affects  the  tubers,  often  causes  loss  by  re- 
ducing the  quality  and  yield  of  potatoes. 


THE   POTATO    CROP.  109 

Many  farmers,  who  live  near  a  good  market  and  are 
willing  to  do  the  extra  labor  required  for  the  larger 
income,  are  overcoming  all  the  above  mentioned  diffi- 
culties and  are  making  good  profits  raising  potatoes,  as 
there  are  simple  treatments  for  most  of  the  diseases  and 
pests  that  injure  the  crop. 

Effects  on  the  Soil. — Potatoes,  being  cultivated  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  have  about  the  same  effect  on 
the  soil  as  corn.  They  furnish  an  opportunity  to  destroy 
weeds  and  conserve  moisture.  The  cultivation  aids  de- 
composition or  rotting  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil, 
hence  this  crop  exhausts  the  soil  more  quickly  than  grain 
crops  do.  If  one  is  to  continue  to  grow  potatoes,  he  must 
make  liberal  provision  for  supplying  the  soil  with  plant 
food.  The  productivity  of  a  soil  is  most  easily  main- 
tained by  the  rotation  of  crops  and  by  the  application 
of  barnyard  manure.  In  many  cases  the  application  of 
commercial  fertilizers  to  the  potato  crop  proves  profit- 
able. 

Many  of  our  readers  would  find  it  interesting  and 
profitable  to  become  familiar  with  all  of  the  varieties  of 
potatoes  that  are  doing  especially  well  in  their  neigh- 
borhoods. Notice  fields  that  give  large  yields,  also  those 
that  give  small  yields,  and  see  if  you  can  find  out  why 
the  different  fields  did  not  yield  the  same. 

Questions : 

1.  Which  of  the  twoi  crops,  wheat  or  potatoes,  yields 
the  larger  income  per  acre? 

2.  Which  of  these  two  crops  is  the  more  costly  to 
grow,  and  why? 

3.  Which  crop  is  better  adapted  to  small  farms? 

4.  How  many  bushels  per  acre  should  potatoes  yield 
on  good,  well-prepared  soil? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  An  acre  of  potatoes  jdelds  100  bu.  What  is  the 
value  of  the  crop  at  35c  per  bu.  ? 

2.  It  costs  $25.00  per  acre  to  grow  potatoes.  What 
is  the  net  profit  per  acre  if  the  yield  is  100  bu.  worth  35c 
per  bu. ?     If  the  yield  is  150  bu.,  worth  35c  per  bu.? 


110  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

3.  How  many  acres  of  potatoes  yielding  100  bu. 
per  acre  must  be  grown  to  return  as  much  net  profit  as 
one  acre  yielding  150  bu.  (cost  and  price  same  as  in  ex- 
ample 2). 

POTATOES    FOR   SEED   AND   COOKING. 

Good  Potatoes  are  sound,  smooth,  free  from  scab, 
about  uniform  in  size,  and  when  cooked,  are  white  and 
flaky.  There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  potatoes  that 
are  good.  There  is  probably  no  best  variety,  but  the 
variety  that  will  yield  the  greatest  money  value  per 
acre  is  as  a  rule  the  one  to  raise. 

One  Variety  in  a  Neighborhood. — Potatoes,  like  many 
other  farm  products,  sell  better  when  only  one  variety 
is  offered,  and  that  in  large  quantities.  It  is  well,  there- 
fore, for  farmers  in  a  locality  to  choose  one  or  two  va- 
rieties that  suit  tiiem  and  all  raise  the  same  kind  or 
kinds  of  potatoes'.  If  this  is  done  the  potatoes  caji  be 
sold  by  the  local  buyer  in  car  lots  of  one  variety  and  he 
can  get  a  much  better  price,  therefore  can  pay  the  grow- 
ers more  than  he  could  were  each  farmer  to  raise  dif- 
ferent varieties,  thus  forcing  the  dealer  to  sell  mixed 
potatoes.  The  following  quotation  taken  from  the  Min- 
neapolis Journal  illusitrates  the  difference  in  prices  that 
are  paid  in  Minneapolis  for  mixed  and  for  pure  car  lots 
of  potatoes:  ''Potatoes,  car  lots,  Burbanks  sacked  per 
bu.,  50c ;  mixed  red  and  white,  sacked,  35c ;  red,  sacked, 
40c."  An  increase  of  five  or  ten  cents  in  price  for  pota- 
toes makes  quite  a  difference  to  the  farmer  who  raises 
potatoes  to  sell. 

Seed  Potatoes. — In  the  fall,  when  the  crop  is  being 
dug,  is  the  time  to  select  sleed  potatoes.  If  care  and 
judgment  are  exercised  in  the  selection,  the  variety  may 
be  maintained  or  improved,  while  as  ordinarily  selected 
a  variety  tends  to  run  out.  Plants  may  be  improved  by 
selection  just  the  same  as  animals.  One  of  the  great 
laws  of  the  universe  is  that  like  produces  like.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  raise  large  yields  of  potatoesi  of  medium  and 
uniform  size,  consequently  it  is  wise  to  select  seed  po- 


POTATOES  FOR  SEED  AND  COOKING. 


Ill 


tatoes  of  that  type.  If  one  digs  several  hills  of  potatoes 
and  keeps  the  yields  of  the  various  hills  separate,  he 
will  see  that  the  hills  vary  in  yield  and  in  the  size  of 
the  potatoes.  Some  hills'  have  a  great  many  small  pota- 
toes, others  a  good  number  of  medium  sized  potatoes, 
and    still   others   have   one   or   two    very   large   potatoes 

and  several  small  ones. 
A  hill  that  yields  from^ 
five  to  eight  potatoes  of' 
medium  size,  with  no 
very  small  or  very 
large  ones,  is  much 
more  desirable  than 
one  which  yields  an 
( qual  bulk  of  mixed 
sizes.  If  one  wishes  to 
raise  uniform  potatoes 
lie  should  save  his  seed 
from  hills  that  produce 
uniform  potatoes.  This 
is  impossible  to  do  aft- 
er the  Dotatoes  have 
been  mixed,  as  one  can- 
not tell  from  what  kind 
of  a  hill  the  seed  came. 
It  is  not  a  great  d^al  of 
troublp  to  dig  several 
rows  of  potatoes  by  hand,  keeping  each  hill  separate,  then 
from  the  most  desirable  hills  select  seed  potatoes.  This 
is  the  surest  way  known  of  getting  good  seed.  It  is  hop- 
ed that  tlie  readers  of  this  article  w411  observe  the  varia- 
tion in  potatoes  from  different  hills  and  save  their  seed 
potatoes  in  the  way  suggested. 

Result  of  Cooking. — Probably  no  other  vegetable 
is  so  generally  and  extensively  used  as  the  potato.  It 
is  the  only  one  that  is  served  two,  and  often  three  times 
a  day  the  year  round.  Yet  the  cooking  of  potatoes 
often  receives  very  little  thought  or  attention.  There 
is  a  vast  amount  of  difference  in  appearance,  taSte  and 


Fig.  45. — A  good  hill  of  potatoes  from 
which  to  select  seed.  It  contains 
a  large  number  of  uniform  potatoes, 
the  kind  one  likes  to  raise. 


112  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

amount  of  nutriment,  between  a  potato  properly  cooked 
and  a  like  potato  improperly  cooked.  Much  depends 
upon  the  potato  itself.  Some  varieties  are  never  good 
in  certain  localities,  and  some  years  a  good  variety  yields 
inferior  potatoes  owing  to  the  season.  But  to  **show 
up"  potatoes  when  they  are  good,  and  to  make  the  best 
of  poor  po.tatoes  by  cooking  them  wisely,  is  worth  while 
and  requires  considerable  thought  and  attention..  A 
good  potato  when  properly  cooked  should  be  white,  dry 
and  flaky,  or  mealy  throughout.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
boys;  and  girls  will  observe  the  results  of  proper  cook- 
ing of  potatoes,  and  try  some  of  the  experiments  sug- 
gested. 

Baked  Potatoes  are  the  most  wholesome,  as  very  little 
nutriment  is  lost  by  this  manner  of  cooking.  Select  po- 
tatoes of  uniform  size,  so  they  will  all  cook  in  the  same 
length  of  time.  Wash  thoroughly,  dry  and  place  in  a 
shallow  baking  pan  which  has  been  heated,  and  put  into 
a  hot  oven.  The  pan  is  not  an  essential,  however,  mere- 
ly a  convenience.  The  potatoes  may  be  placed  on  the 
bottom  of  the  oven.  They  should  bake  in  forty  or  fifty 
minutes.  Large  potatoes  might  require  an  hour.  When 
done,  squeeze  each  until  it  cracks  open,  or  pierce  with  a 
fork,  thus  giving  the  moisture  a  chance  to  escape,  which 
keeps  the  potato  from  getting  soggy.  (Experiment: 
leave  one  potato  without  cracking  or  piercing  it  and 
compare  it  when  opened  with  the  others.) 

Boiled,  Unpeeled  Potatoes  rank  next  to  baked  po- 
tatoes in  amount  of  nutriment  conserved.  Wash  the  po- 
tatoes, cut  a  little  of  the  skin  from  the  ends  and  a  nar- 
row band  from  the  center  to  allow  the  excess  water  to 
pass  out.  Put  potatoes  thus  prepared  into  a  kettle  or 
stew  pan;  cover  generously  with  boiling  water;  put  on 
the  cover,  and  place  on  a  hot  sH;ove.  They  should  be 
kept  boiling  until  they  are  done,  probably  twenty-five 
or  thirty  minutes.  When  they  have  boiled  fifteen  min- 
utes put  in  one  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  every  dozen 
potatoes,  and  finish  cooking  in  salted  water.  When  done, 
drain  off  the  water,  set  kettle  back  onto  the  stove  and 


POTATO  FOR  SEED  AND   COOKING.  113 

shake  about  gently  until  the  moisture  has  passed  off  and 
the  potatoes  are  flaky.  (Experiment:  let  one  potato 
stand  for  a  few  minutes  in  some  of  the  potato  water 
turned  off  and  then  open  the  potato  without  drying  it 
on  the  stove.     Compare  it  with  the  others.) 

Boiled  Potatoes  (Peeled). — The  most  nutritious  part 
of  the  potato  lies;  near  the  skin,  so  pare  very  sparingly. 
Then,  too,  we  are  often  influenced  by  little  things,  and 
if  we  allow  ourselves  to  be  wasteful  paring  potatoes, 
we  may  be  wasteful  in  other  respects.  Cook  the  same  as 
unpeeled  potatoes.  When  drying,  after  they  have  been 
drained,  more  salt  may  be  sprinkled  over  them.  It  will 
help  to  dry  them.  (Experiments :  take  a  potato  out  be- 
fore it  is  done  and  see  if  it  will  dry  and  be  flaky.  Boil 
another  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  too  long  and  note  results.) 

Steamed  Potatoes. — ^Prepare  the  same  as  for  boiling. 
Put  into  a  steamer  over  sl,  kettle  of  boiling  water.  Keep 
thi^  water  boiling  briskly.  Potatoes  should  be  done  in 
thirty  or  forty  minutes. 

Questions : 

1.  Why  is  it  an  advantage  for  farmers  in  one  lo- 
cality to  raisie  the  same  vmety  of  potatoes? 

2.  What  can  you  say  about  the  selection  of  seed  po- 
tatoes? 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  different  methods 
of  cooking  potatoes. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Four  farmers  sell  a  car  load  of  600  bu.  of  mixed 
potatoes  at  38c  per  bu.  How  much  does  each  get  if  they 
divide  equally? 

2.  Four  farmers  sell  a  car  load,  600  bu.,  of  uniform 
pot'^toes  at  48c  per  bu.  ITow  much  does  each  get  if  they 
divi'^^  equally? 

3.  A  spends  1  day  extra  in  selecting  his  seed  for  one 
acre  of  potatoes,  by  the  hill.  His  potatoes  yielded  125  bu. 
per  acre.  B  used  any  seed  he  could  get.  His  crop  yielded 
100  bu.  per  acre.  How  much  did  A  make  the  day  he 
selected  his  seed,  if  potatoes  are  worth  40c  per  bu.  1 


114  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

PREPARATIONS    FOR   A   POTATO   CROP. 

Good  Cultivation  Warranted. — Since  potatoes  are  a 
side  issue  on  many  farms  they  are  often  grown  without 
receiving  the  care  necessary  to  insure  a  successful  crop. 
A  great  deal  of  work  is  required  to  grow  an  acre  of  po- 
tatoes^ hence  the  importance  of  fitting  the  soil  and  car- 
ing for  the  crop  so  a  good  yield  may  be  expected.  A 
fair  crop  of  potatoes  is  worth  $40  per  acre.  A  fair  crop 
of  grain  is  worth  $10.00  per  acre.  Care  in  preparing  the 
soil  so  as  to  increase  the  yield  10  per  cent  means  an 
increase  in  value  of  $4.00  in  the  potato  crop  and  but 
$1.00  in  the  grain  crop.  This  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
when  a  crop  that  brings  a  comparatively  large  income 
per  acre  is  raised,  one  can  afford  to  put  more  expense 
on  fertilizing  or  preparing  the  soil  or  other  operations, 
as  cultivating,  etc.,  than  when  crops  yielding  less  in 
money  value  are  grown. 

Seed. — About  ten  bushels  of  seed  potatoes  are  requir- 
ed to  plant  an  acre.  We  learned  on  page  110  that  the 
best  sieed  potatoes  are  secured  by  selecting  them  from 
hills  in  which  there  are  largo  numbers  of  uniform  and 
desirable  potatoes,  rather  than  from  hills  with  some  large 
and  some  small  ones.  Of  coursie  such  selection  cannot 
be  made  in  the  spring.  So  if  one  did  not  make  the  se> 
lection  in  the  fall  at  digging  time,  the  next  best  thing  is 
to  select  good,  smooth,  uniform,  shallow-eyed  potatoes 
from  the  stock  at  hand. 

It  is  not  wise  to  plant  small  potatoes,  for  it  is  un- 
reasonable to  expect  to  raise  better  potatoes  than  are 
planted.  Very  little  ill  effect  will  be  realized  from  using 
small  potatoes  for  a  year  or  so,  but  if  one  continues  the 
practice  he  can  but  expect  to  raise  small  potatoes. 

Prevent  Seed  from  Sprouting. — ^Potatoes  are  liable  to 
begin  to  sprout  as  soon  as  the  weather  gets  warm.  This 
is  undesirable,  as  the  spouts  take  nourishment  from  the 
potatoes  which  should  be  saved  to  nourish  the  young 
plant  when  started  in  the  field.  Keep  the  seed  in  asi  cool 
a  place  as  possible  without  freezing  it,  and  where  it  is 
dry.    It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  seed  potatoes  in  baskets 


PREPARATIONS.  FOR  A  POTATO  CROP.         115 

or  slatted  boxes  piled  up  in  a  cool  cellar  so  the  air  can 
circulate  freely  about  them. 

Scab. — The  rough  blotches  on  the  surface  of  potatoes 
are  called  scab.  It  is  caused  by  a  disease  which  attacks 
the  potatoes  while  they  are  growing.  The  disease  is 
caused  by  certain  spores  or  seeds,  just  the  same  as  diph- 
theria or  other  contagious  diseases  are  caused  by  germs. 
To  prevent  scab  the  spores  of  the  disease  must  be  de- 
stroyed. The  spores  may  live  over  winter  in  the  soil  on 
which  scabby  potatoes  were  grown  the  year  before. 
They  may  get  into  the  soil  with  manure  from  animals 
that  have  been  fed  scabby  potatoes,  or  they  may  be  on 


Fig.    46. — Spreading    manure.     First    operation    in    getting    land    ready 
for  potato  crop. 

the  seed  planted.  This  latter  is  the  most  common  way 
of  spreading  the  disease,  and  as  the  seed  is  very  easily 
treated  to  prevent  scab  there  is  very  little  excuse  for 
getting  scabby  potatoes  in  this  way.  Formaline  is  a 
liquid  which  may  be  purchased  at  any  drug  store  for 
from  25  to  50  cents  per  pint.  A  pint  mixed  with  35 
gallons  of  water  makes  a  solution  which  will  destroy 
the  scab  spores  on  seed  potatoes  if  they  are  soaked  in  it 
for  two  hours.  Treat  for  scab  before  cutting  the  po- 
tatoes. If  cut  first,  some  of  the  pieces  may  stick  to- 
gether and  the  spores  in  between  will  not  be  reached 
by  the  solution. 


116  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Cutting  Seed  Potatoes. — Experiments  have  proved  that 
rather  good  sized  pieces  give  larger  yields  than  small 
pieces.  It  is  well  to  cut  the  pieces  to  about  1  oz.  in  size, 
being  sure  to  get  at  least  one  good  eye  in  each  piece.  The 
large  pieces  furnish  more  food  for  the  plants  until  they 
get  their  roots  started  than  do  the  smaller  pieces. 
Questions : 

1.  Why  can  a  farmer  afford  to  spend  more  time 
preparing  an  acre  of  ^oil  for  potatoes  than  for  grain  ? 

2.  How  should  seed  potatoes  be  kept  during  the  win- 
ter? 

3.  How  does  sprouting  injure  seed  potatoes? 

4.  How  is  the  disease  known  as  scab  spread?  How 
treated  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  potatoes  are  planted  in  rows  36  in.  apart,  with 
hills  16  in.  apart  in  the  row,  how  many  sq.  ft.  of  space  will 
each  hill  occupy?  How  many  hills  will  there  be  on  an 
acre?     (There  are  43560  sq.  ft.  in  an  acre) 

2i.  If  there  are  10890  hills  of  potatoes  on  an  acre 
and  one  1  oz.  piece  is  planted  in  each  hill,  how  many  bush- 
els of  seed  will  be  required  to  plant  an  acre  ? 

3.  If  there  are  10890  hills  of  potatoes  on  an  acre, 
how  many  pounds  must  each  hill  yield  to  give  a  yield 
of  300  bu.  per  acre  ? 

PLANTING    POTATOES. 

The  Soil  and  its  Preparation. — Potatoes  require  rich, 
moist,  mellow  soil;  and,  as  the  tubers  must  grow  under 
ground  to  protect  them  from  the  sun,  it  is  well  to  have 
the  soil  mellow  to  quite  a  depth  (about  six  inches). 
From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  land  must  be  plowed  at 
least  six  inches  deep.  Fall  plowing  is  preferable,  as  it 
gives  the  soil  a  chance  to  become  firm  and  settled  and 
be  acted  upon  by  the  weather.  Spring  plowing,  unless 
very  thoroughly  disced  and  harrowed,  is  liable  to  be  too 
loose  and  to  dry  out.    It  is  also  more  likely  to  be  lumpy. 

Clover  Sod,  or  land  that  has  grown  clover  the  previous 


PLANTING   POTATOES. 


117 


year,  and  was  plowed  in  the  fall,  is  the  ideal  soil  for* 
potatoes,  especially  if  the  land  was  top  dressed  with  ma- 
nure before  it  was  plowed.  A  very  excellent  way  to  pre- 
pare such  land  is  to  top  dress  it  With  good  stable  ma- 
nure in  the  fall  on  the  cloveil  sod  before  it  is  plowed. 
Then  disc  it  to  cut  up  the  sod  and  mix  the  manure  with 

it.  Then  plow  in  the 
fall.  This  treatment 
gets  the  clover  sod  and 
the  manure  well  pulver- 
ized and  mixed  togeth- 
er and  turned  under 
where  the  tubers  are  to 
grow.  This  insures  them 
a  rich,  mellow  place.  If 
soil  is  very  light  and 
sandy  it  would  be  bet- 
ter to  plow  the  land  in 
the  fall  without  manur- 
ing it.  Manure  it  dur- 
ing the  winter  or  spring 
and  disc  the  manure  in, 
thus  keeping  it  near 
the  surface. 

If  land  has  been 
treated  as  suggested 
above,  discing  and  har- 
rowing it  a  few  times 
in  the  spring  will  put 
it  in  excellent  condi- 
tion for  planting. 

If  the  land  has  not 
been  prepared  in  the 
fall,  then  the  same  ma- 
nuring and  discing 
should  be  done  before 
the  land  is  plowed.  Then  plow,  harrow  and  disc  until 
the  soil  is  well  packed  down.  It  is  important  that  spring 
plowing  be  well  harrowed  to  assist  in  firming  it,  that  it 
may  not  be  so  loose  as  to  dry  out  too  quickly. 


Fig.  47. — Types  of  potatoes.  1  is  a 
rougli,  deep-eyed  type,  not  desirable 
for  any  purpose.  2.  A  good  type  of 
Burbank.  3.  A  good  type  of  Car- 
men No.  3.  4.  A  good  type  of  early 
Ohio.  Note  smooth  surface  and 
sliallow  eyes  of  Nos.  2,  3  and  4. 


118  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

Planting. — Pota^toes  should  be  planted  in  April  or  early 
May,  so  they  will  have  a  chance  to  grow  before  the  dry, 
hot  weather  comes.  Potatoes  grow  better  in  rather  cool 
weather  when  the  soil  is  reasonably  moist.  They  are 
usually  planted  in  rows  about  36  inches  apart  and  the 
pieces  are  dropped  from  14  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
About  4  inches  is  a  good  depth  to  plant  them.  If  one 
has  a<  horse  planter  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  plant  po- 
tatoes. There  are  also  satisfactory  hand  planters.  If 
but  one-half  an  acre  to  an  acre  is  raised,  as  is  the  case 
on  most  farms,  they  may  be  easily  and  well  planted  by 
marking  the  land  with  a  com  marker,  then  plowing  a 
furrow,  for  each  row,  with  a  common  walking  plow  or 
a  shovel  plow,  dropping  the  seed  in  these  furrows  by 
hand,  then  covering  with  a  plow  or  by  harrowing  cross- 
wise. 

Blind  Cultivation. — If  potatoes  are  planted  with  a  hand 
planter  or  by  dropping  into  furrows  as  suggested  above, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  go  into  the  field  with  a  cultivator 
after  they  have  been  planted  a  few  days  and  give  the  plot 
a  good  cultivation.  This  is  called  blind  cultivation.  Set 
the  shovels  so  as  to  throw  the  dirt  onto  the  row,  thus 
making  a  ridge  over  each  row.  Follow  this  every  few 
days  by  harrowing. 

Throwing  the  dirt  in  a  ridge  over  the  rows,  then 
later  leveling  it  off  with  the  harrow,  keeps  the  soil  mel- 
low over  the  rows  and  prevents  weeds  from  starting, 
making  it  much  easier  to  keep  the  rows  clean. 

Cultivation  of  potatoes  should  continue  at  frequent 
intervals,  from  the  time  they  are  planted  until  the  vines 
cover  the  ground,  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  check  the 
evaporation  of  moisture.  Potatoes  require  a  great  deal 
of  moisture,  and  a  lack  of  moisture  at  any  time  reduces 
the  yield.  As  in  cultivating  corn,  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  cultivate  deep  enough  to  injure  the  roots  of  the  po- 
tatoes. Except  when  the  soil  is  cold  and  wet,  leve] 
cultivation  is  preferable  to  hilling. 


PLANTING  POTATOES'.  119 

Questions : 

1.  For  what  reasons  would  you  prefer  fall  plowing 
for  potatoes? 

2.  Desicribe  a  good  method  of  preparing  clover  sod 
for  a  crop  of  potatoes  ? 

3.  How  are  potatoes  planted?    How  cultivated? 

Arithmetic :  >■ 

1.  It  costs  35  cents  per  acre  to  disc  land.  A  farmer 
discs  his  potato  field  twice  after  manuring  and  before 
plowing.  What  must  be  the  increased  yield  to  pay  for 
the  extra  work  of  discing  twice,  if  potatoes  are  worth  35 
cents  per  bushel? 

2.  It  costs  50  cts.  per  acre  more  to  plow  6  in.  deep 
than  to  plow  4  in.  deep.  How  much  does  one  get  for 
his  extra  labor  if  land  plowed  6  in.  deep  yields  10  bu. 
more  than  land  plowed  only  4  in.  deep,  if  potatoes  are 
worth  35c.  per  bu.  ? 

3.  If  it  costs  50  cts.  per  acre  to  cultivate  potatoes, 
how  much  must  each  cultivation  increase  the  yield  to  pay 
for  the  cultivation,  if  potatoes  are  worth  35  cts.  per  bu.  ? 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  HAY  CROP. 

IMPORTANCE   OF  THE   HAY  CROP. 

The  Hay  Crop  bears  such  an  important  relation  to  pro- 
duction of  the  soil  and  to  the  livestock  enterprises  of  the 
farm,  that  at  least  some  of  the  principles  of  its  growth 
and  value  should  be  understood  by  every  tiller  of  the  soil. 

Advantages. — The  value  of  the  hay  crop  isi  often  un- 
der-estimated. In  fact,  its  many  advantages  are  seldom 
appreciated.  Probably  you  have  noticed  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  plow  and  prepare  the  land  for  a  hay  crop 
as  is  done  for  other  crops.  The  grass  seed  is  sown  with 
some  preceding  grain  crop.  So  seeding  of  hay  costs 
nothing  but  for  the  seed. 

If  you  go  out  in  a  good  meadow  of  tame  hay  at  hay- 
ing time,  you  will  find  very  few,  if  any,  weeds;  and  if 
there  are  weeds  they  will  be  cut  with  the  hay  crop  be- 
for  they  produce  seed,  as  hay  is  usually  cut  before  most 
of  the  common  weeds  produce  seed.  For  this  reason 
the  hay  crop  helps  to  clean  the  land  of  weeds. 

Another  advantage  is  that  a  hay  crop  makes  the  soil 
better  for  succeeding  crops,  which  is  not  true  of  grain 
or  corn  crops.  If  there  is  clover  in  the  hay  it  adds  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil;  and  any  hay  crop  increases  the  amount 
of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  because  it  has  a  heavier 
root  system  than  have  any  of  the  other  classes  of  crops. 
You  can  prove  this  by  trying  to  pull  a  handful  of  grass 
in  the  meadow  and  a  handful  of  grain  in  the  grain  field. 

Cost. — There  is  no  other  kind  of  winter  feed  grown 
on  the  farm  that  can  be  produced  so  cheaply  in  propor- 
tion to  its  feeding  value  as  can  hay.  Some  farmers 
hesitate  to  devote  much  of  their  land  to  groAving  hay, 
because  it  seems  to  bring  in  less  money  per  acre  than 
do  other  crops.  The  fact  that  it  costs*  much  less  per 
acre  to  raise  hay  than  to  raise  corn  or  any  of  the  grain 
crops,  is  often  overlooked.  The  following  table  shows 
the    comparative    cost   of   growing    an    oat    crop    and    a 


IMPORTANCE   OF   THE  HAY  CROP.  121 

hay  crop.  The  figures  used  are  averages  derived  from 
keeping  accurate  records  on  eight  farms  at  Northfield, 
Minn.,  for  six  years.     They  are  comparatively  accurate. 

Cost  per  Acre,  Exclusive  of  Rent,  of  Producing  Hay  and 

Oats  at  Northfield,  Minn.    Average  for  Six  Years.* 

Hay — Timothy  and  Clover. 

First  Crop. 

Seed $  .293 

Mowing 368 

Raking    178 

Cocking  and  Spreading   .199 

Hauling    in    .199 

Machinery  Cost 548 

Second  Crop. 

Mowing : $  .264 

Raking    , 115 

Cocking  and  Spreading .150 

Hauling  in  .464 

Total  Cost $3,678 

Oats. 

Seed $  .997 

Cleaning  Seed 023 

Plowing 1.256 

Dragging    285 

Seeding  \ 261 

Cutting 401 

Twine   335 

Shocking 165 

Stacking   772 

Threshing  (labor) 568 

Threshing  (cash) 774 

Machinery  cost  .517 

Total  Cost $6,354 

The  above  table  s^hows  that  there  is  approximately 
twice  as  much  labor  and  expense  in  growing  an  oat  crop 
as  in  growing  a  hay  crop,  even  when  two  cuttings  of 

•Bureau   of  Statistics  Bulletin  No.   37. 


122  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

hay  are  made.  So  it  is  not  necessary  to  get  so  mucih' 
from  the  hay  crop  as  from  the  grain  crop  in  order  to 
make  equally  large  profits. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — If  you  can  find  in  your  neighbor- 
hood a  timothy  and  clover  meadow  seeded  last  year,  and 
one  on  similar  land  that  has  been  seeded  down — that  is, 
raising  hay  for  several  years — you  will  see  that  the 
new  meadow,  if  a  good  stand  has  been  secured,  will  give 
a  larger  yield  than  the  old.  Likewise  a  meadow  or 
pasture  plowed  up  will  usually  raise  a  larger  crop  of 
corn  or  grain  than  will  a  field  that  has  not  been  in 
grass  for   several  years.     These   facts  make  it   evident 


Fig.   48. — Newly  plowed  sod  land.     The  large  amount  of  roots  hold 
the  soil  together  in  the  furrow. 

that  both  the  meadow  and  the  grain  and  corn  crops 
will  yield  more  if  new  meadows  are  seeded  each  year 
and  old  ones  plowed  for  other  crops.  This  means  rota- 
tion of  crops,  and  illustrates  one  of  the  advantages  of 
the  practice. 

Questions : 

1.  Give  the  advantages  of  the  hay  crop. 

2.  How  does  the  cost  of  raising  oats  compare  with 
the  cost  of  raising  hay  ? 

3.  How  does  the  yield  of  hay  from  an  old  meadow 
compare  with  the  yield  from  a  newly  seeded  meadow  ? 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  the  rotation  of  crops? 


CLOVER.  123 

Arithmetic : 

1.  One  acre  of  clover  and  timothy  will  produce  2 
tons  of  hay.  How  much  does  it  cost  per  ton  if  it  cost 
$3.68  per  acre  to  raise  it?  How  much  does  it  cost  per 
ton  if  $3.00  per  acre  is  added  for  land  rent? 

2.  Tf  hay  yields  but  one  and  one  half  ton  per  acre 
how  much  does  it  cost  per  ton  if  it  costs  $3.68  per  acre  to 
raise  it  ?  How  much  does  it  cost  per  ton  if  $3.00  per  acre 
isi  added  for  land  rent? 

3.  If  clover  hay  is  worth  $8.00  per  ton  compared 
with  bran  at  $20.00  per  ton,  how  much  is  bran  worth 
when  clover  hay  is  worth  simply  the  cost  of  growing 
it,  or  $3.34  per  ton? 

CLOVER. 

Varieties. — As  clover  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  field 
crops,  it  is  important  that  every  one  know  something  of 
its  habits  and  of  the  conditions  favorable  to  its  growth. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  clover,  but  only  four 
of  the  varieties  are  important  in  the  Central  West.  These 
are  Mammoth,  Medium  Red,  Alsike  and  White. 

Mammoth  Clover  is  very  much  like  medium  red.  In 
fact  it  is  very  hard  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other. 
The  Mammoth  is  much  coarser  than  the  medium  red,  and 
on  that  account  does  not  make  so  good  a  quality  of  hay. 
Its  chief  value  is  as  a  green  crop  to  plow  under,  though 
it  is  often  used  for  hay,  pasture  or  seed. 

Medium  Red  is  easily  distinguished  from  alsike  and 
white  clover,  as  it  is  larger  and  each  leaflet  is  marked 
by  a  V  shaped,  lighter  colored  streak  near  its  center. 
The  red  blossoms  aid,  also,  in  distinguishing  this  variety 
of  clover.  It  will  be  noticed  that  nearly  or  quite  all  the 
stems  of  this  clover  are  covered  with  fine  hair.  These 
hairs  are  objectionable,  as  they  have  a  tendency  to  gather 
dust,  thus  making  dusty  hay,  unless  very  carefully  cured. 
It  is  usually  a  biennial,  that  is,  as  a  rule,  it  lives  but 
two  years.  It  is  usually  sown  with  some  grain  crop, 
called  a  nurse  crop.  The  clover  plants  are  very  small 
during  the  early  part  of  summer,  and  do  not  grow  much 


124 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


until  the  grain  crop  is  cut.  During  the  fall  the  clover 
grows  very  rapidly ;  but  it  does  not  produce  a  crop  until 
the  next  year,  the  second  year  of  its  growth,  when  it 
produces  two  crops — two  hay  crops  or  a  hay  and  a  seed 
crop.  The  slecond  crop  is  the  one  usually  saved  for  seed. 
After  the  two  crops  are  cut,  the  .plants  usually  die,  as 
they  have  lived  their  life.  An  occasional  plant  may  live 
over,  and  considerable  clover  may  appear  in  the  field 
the  third  year ;  but  this  is  largely  due  to  seeds  formed  the 

first  or  second  year  of 
the  clover 's  growth. 
This  variety  of  clover 
is  especially  adapted  to 
rotation  pastures  and 
meadows.  Considerable 
trouble  is  experienced 
in  curing  this  variety  of 
hay,  as  the  thick  stems 
contain  so  much  juice 
that  in  trying  to  dry 
them  the  leaves,  which 
are  very  thin,  are  liable 
to  become  too  dry  and 
shatter  off  when  the 
hay  is  handled. 

Alsike  Clover  is 
smaller  than  medium 
red  clover,  has 
smaller,  more  oblong  leaves  without  white  markings,  and 
there  are  no  hairs  on  its  stems.  The  blossoms  are  small- 
er and  lighter  colored,  nearly  white  at  first  and  later 
pink.  The  seed  is  much  smaller  and  darker  colored  than 
the  seed  of  medium  red.  Akike  clover  makes  a  better 
quality  of  hay  than  does'  the  red  clover,  because  it  is  free 
of  hairs  and  finer,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  does  not  yield  sio 
much  on  upland.  It  is  a  perennial,  that  is  it  lives  for 
several  years  unless  some  unfavorable  conditions  kill 
it.  On  this  account  it  i^  more  valuable  for  permanent 
pasture  or  meadow  than  the  medium  red.     It  is  quite 


FifT.  49. — Leaves  and  Stems  of  Clo- 
ver. 1.  Medium  red.  (Note  mark- 
ings on  leaflets,  also  hairs  on 
stems.)  2.  White.  (Note  smooth 
stem  and  small  leaflets.)  3.  Al- 
sike.  (Note  smooth  stem  and 
smooth  leaflets  w^ith  prominent 
midrib.) 


CLOVER. 


125 


well  adapted  for  low  wet  places  as  it  will  stand  more  wa- 
ter than  will  the  red  clover. 

White  Clover  is  a  very  small,  low  growing  plant  with 
a  tendency  to  trail  along  on  the  ground.     It  has  small, 

nearly  round, 
smooth  leaves  and 
smooth  stems.  The 
s  e  e  d  is  a  little 
smaller  than  Al- 
sike  clover  seed  and 
is  yellowish  in  col- 
or. It  is  a  perennial. 
The  stems  creep 
along  on  the 
ground  and  take 
root  at  the  joints, 
thus  starting  new 
plants.  It  spreads 
in  this  way  as  well 
as  by  the  seeds. 
The  blossoms  are 
white,  and  they  can 
usually  be  seen  at 
any  time  during  the 
summer  from  June 
1st  until  it  freezes 
up  in  the  fall.  The 
AVhite  clover  is  of 
very  little  value  as 
a  hay  crop,  as  it 
grows  too  short.  It 
i  s  common  o  n 
lawns  and  in  old 
pastures  and  is  a 
very  valuable  plant 
for  such  places. 
Getting  a  Catch  of  Clover. — Difficulty  is  sometimes  ex- 
perienced in  getting  a  good  catch  of  clover.  As  clover 
grows  slowly  the  first  year  it  is  sown,  the  grain  crop  with 


Fig.  50. — Root  Systems  of  Alsike 
and  White  Clover  Plants.  1.  Al- 
sike. (Note  small  tap  root  and 
comparatively  large  laterals.)  2. 
White.  (Note  creeping  stem  root- 
ed at  different  places,  and  fine  fi- 
brous roots.) 


126  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

which  it  grows  is  liable  to  crowd  it  pretty  hard ;  and  when 
the  grain  is  cut  the  hot  sun  is  pretty  hard  on  the  small 
plants,  especially  if  the  weather  is  dry.  CloA^er  seed 
should  be  sown  only  on  a  fine,  mellow,  rich,  well-prepared 
seed  bed.  Land  that  has  been  well  manured,  then  plant- 
ed to  corn  and  well  cultivated,  then  well  disced  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  and  sown  to  grain,  is  in  fine  condition  for 
clover  seed. 

If  clover  seed  is  sown  on  poor  land  the  chances  of 
getting  a  catch  are  greatly  increased  if  a  light  dress- 
ing of  manure  can  be  applied  soon  after  the  seed  is  sown. 
Questions : 

1.  Name  the  four  varieties  of  clover  common  in  the 
Middle  West. 

2.  Which  two  are  very  much  alike? 

3.  Describe  the  leaf,  stem  and  blossom  of  each  of 
the  last  three. 

4.     What  are  annual,  biennial  and  perennial  plants  ? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  an  acre  of  clover  yields  3500  pounds  of  hay 
at  the  first  crop,  and  a  bushel  of  seed  at  the  second  crop, 
what  is  the  value  of  the  entire  crop,  hay  $7  per  ton  and 
clover  seed  $8  per  bushel? 

2.  If  an  acre  of  clover  yields  200'  pounds  of  seed, 
what  is  its  value  at  $8  per  bushel?  (60  lbs.  per  bu.) 

3.  If  clover  seed  is  worth  $8  per  bushel,  what  is  its 
value  per  hundred  weight? 

CLOVER  ROOTS  AND  BACTERIA. 

Medium  Red  Clover  Root. — An  examination  of  the 
roots  of  medium  red,  alsike  and  white  clover  will  show 
considerable  difference  in  them.  The  medium  red  clover 
has  a  large  tap  root  (a  root  running  straight  down  in 
the  soil).  This  root  is  much  larger  and  longer  than  the 
root  of  either  of  the  other  clovers.  If  a  plant  is  dug 
carefully  from  a  well  drained  soil,  this  tap  root  will  be 
found  to  extend  down  two,  and  often  more,  feet;  which 
shows  that  this  clover  gets  part  of  its  food  from  the 


CLOVER   ROOTS  AND    BACTERIA. 


127 


sub-soil.  It  has  also  many  lateral  roots  running  out  from 
the  tap  root.  In  fact,  if  roots  are  carefully  taken  up  it 
will  be  seen  that  there  is  nearly  as  much  plant  below 
as  above  ground.  On  this  account  medium  red  clover 
is  one  of  the  very  best  crops  to  grow  to  add  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil. 

Alsike   Clover   Roots 

are  considerably  small- 
er than  those  of  medi- 
um red  clover.  In  many 
plants  the  tap  root  is 
not  plainly  seen  or  is 
not  much  larger  than 
the  fibrous  roots.  How- 
ever the  roots  of  the 
alsike  clover  extend 
into  the  soil  to  consid- 
erable depth,  thus  en- 
a])ling  the  plants  to 
draw  on  the  subsoil  to 
some  extent  for  plant 
food.  This  clover  also 
adds  a  large  amount  of 
vegetable  matter  to  the 
soil  by  its  roots.  Both 
alsike  and  medium  red 
are  very  beneficial  to 
heavy  soils,  by  opening 
them  and  letting  in  air 
when  the  roots  decay. 
They  are  beneficial  to 
sandy  soils  by  adding 
large  amounts  of  vege- 
table matter,  thus  mak- 
ing the  soils  capable  of  holding  more  moisture. 

White  Clover  Roots  are  very  small  and  fibrous.  No 
tap  roots  are  found,  and  the  fibrous  roots  do  not  go  nearly 
so  deep  as  do  the  roots  of  the  other  clovers.  The  plants 
grow  so  thickly,  owing  to  their  habit  of  spreading,  th^t 


Fig-.  51. — Root  System  of  Medium 
Red  Clover  Plant.  (Note  large  tap 
root,  lateral  roots  and  nodules 
caused  by  nitrogen-gathering  bac- 
teria.) 


128  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

they  thoroughly  cover  the  ground  and  keep  the  surface 
soil  well  supplied  with  vegetable  matter. 

Clover  Adds  Nitrogen  to  the  Soil. — Clover  possesses, 
beside  its  heavy  root  system,  another  feature  which  makes 
it  a  valuable  crop  to  improve  the  soil.  If  a  clover  plant 
is  carefully  dug  from  the  soil,  small  bunches  or  nodules 
about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  pin  head  will  be  seen  on 
the  roots.  Fig.  51.  These  are  caused  by  bacteria.  Bac- 
teria are  a  very  low  form  of  plant  life.  They  are  un- 
able to  live  from  the  soil  as  higher  plants  do,  but  must 
depend  upon  plant  or  animal  substances  to  supply  them 
with  organic  matter.  Disease  germs,  the  germs  that 
cause  milk  to  sour,  the  germs  that  cause  decomposition 
or  rotting,  etc.,  are  also  bacteria.  Some  bacteria  live  on 
dead  matter,  others  on  live  matter.  The  latter  are  call- 
ed parasites.  The  bacteria  causing  the  nodules  on  clover 
roots  are  in  a  sense  parasites,  but  in  this  case  they  are 
beneficial:  they  do  something  for  the  clover  plant  that  it 
is  unable  to  do  for  itself.  All  plants  require  a  large 
amount  of  nitrogen  for  food.  A  very  large  proportion 
of  the  air  is  free  nitrogen.  Our  common  field  crops  are 
unable  to  make  use  of  this  nitrogen;  but  clover,  alfalfa, 
peas,  beans  and  other  plants  belonging  to  the  family 
called  legumes  have  the  habit,  which  no  other  class  of 
plants  have,  of  forming  a  sort  of  partnership  relation 
with  these  bacteria  and  through  them  are  enabled  to 
draw  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air.  Thes/e  nitrogen- 
gathering  bacteria  have  the  power  to  absorb  the  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  to  pass  it  on  to  the  plants  on  which 
they  are  growing.  In  this  way  a  soil  is  made  richer  in 
nitrogen  by  growing  a  legume  crop.  This  is  true  even 
though  the  crop  be  removed  from  the  field,  as  the  roots 
and  stubble  left  are  rich  in  this  element.  An  acre  of 
land  may  contain  150  pounds  more  of  nitrogen  after 
growing  a  crop  of  clover  than  it  did  before.  This  is  a 
very  important  fact  to  farmers.  Nitrogen  when  bought 
in  commercial  fertilizers  costs  from  16c.  to  18c.  per  pound. 
A  farmer  by  growing  clover  or  some  other  legume  crop 


CURING  HAT.  129 

can  add  enough  nitrogen  to  the  soil  to  grow  several 
crops  of  corn  or  grain,  besides  getting  his  legume  crop. 
Questions : 

1.  Which  variety  of  clover,  medium  red  or  alsike,  has 
the  heavier  root  system? 

2.  In  what  ways  is  a  clover  crop  beneficial  to  the  soil  ? 

3.  "What  enables  clover  and  other  plants  belonging 
to  the  same  family  to  make  use  df  the  free  nitrogen  in 
the  air? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  150  lbs.  of  nitrogen  at  16c. 
per  pound?  (Note:  An  acre  of  clover  may  add  150 
pounds  of  nitrogen  to  the  soil.) 

2.  How  many  crops  of  wheat,  each  crop  removing  25 
pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre,  are  required  to  use  the 
nitrogen  added  by  a  crop  of  clover? 

3.  If  an  acre  of  clover  yields  3500  pounds  of  hay  the 
first  cutting,  and  2500  pounds  the  second  cutting,  what 
is  the  value  of  the  hay  at  $7  per  ton? 

CURING    HAY. 

The  Weather. — The  quality  of  hay  and  its  value 
as  food  depends  very  largely  on  the  way  it  is  cured. 
Since  hay  on  a  great  many  farms  forms  a  large  part  of 
the  winter  food  for  stock,  it  is  important  that  it  be  cured 
in  the  best  possible  way.  The  weather  has  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  the  curing  of  hay,  and  some  seasons  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  get  hay  well  cured.  But  there  are 
certain  principles  involved  that,  if  followed,  will  usually 
result  in  a  better  quality  of  hay  than  is  secured  by 
methods  commonly  followed.  The  suggestions  given  be- 
low apply  directly  to  clover,  but  if  followed,  will  give 
good  results  with  any  heavy  crop  of  hay. 

Time  to  Cut. — While  hay  that  is  cut  when  quite  ripe 
yields  more  per  acre  and  is  easier  to  cure  than  earlier 
cut  hay,  it  is  much  less  digestible,  less  palatable,  and 
contains  a  smaller  proportion  of  protein,  which  is  the 
most  valuable  and  costly  element  in  hay.    Experiments 


130  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

show  that  the  greatest  amount  of  digestible  food  is  se- 
cured when  hay  is  cut  at  about  the  time  it  is  in  full 
bloom.  With  clover  this  is  usually  from  about  June 
15th  to  July  1st.  Never  cut  hay  while  the  dew  is  on  it, 
for  time  is  lost  in  the  drying  by  so  doing.  The  dew  will 
dry  off  more  quickly  while  the  hay  is  standing. 

Curing. — ^If  clover  is  cut  in  the  forenoon  of  a  bright 
day,  it  should  be  turned  over,  with  either  a  rake  or  a  ted- 
der, before  any  of  the  top  leaves  become  dry.     The  ob- 


Fig.    52. — Cock    covers   in    use   at   the   Minnesota   Experiment    Station 
in   curing  alfalfa  hay. 

ject  sought  in  curing  clover  hay  should  be,  to  keep  the 
leaves  green  as  long  as  possible,  as  they  help  to  draw 
the  moisture  out  of  the  large  stems,  which  is  the  difficult 
part  to  cure.  If  it  gets  dry  enough  the  first  day,  so  a 
good  job  of  raking  can  be  done,  rake  it  before  night;  if 
not,  ted  it  if  possible  so  as  to  get  the  green  hay  from  the 
bottom  on  top  to  take  the  dew,  as  dew  will  blacken  part- 
ly cured  clover.  If  it  looks  like  rain,  cock  the  hay  as  soon 
as  possible,  if  not,  leave  in  the  windrow.  The  next  morn- 
ing as  soon  as  the  top  part  of  the  hay  is  nearly  dry, 


CURING  HAY, 


131 


rake,  or  if  raked,  turn  the  windrow  over  either  by  hand 
with  a  fork  or  with  the  team  and  rake.  Aim  to  keep 
the  hay  loose  in  the  windrow,  so  the  air  can  pass  through 
it  freely.  The  leaves  are  largely  protected  from  the  hot 
sun  in  this  way,  and  can  perform  their  function  of  draw- 
ing water  from  the  stems,  and  are  not  shattered  off  and 
lost.  It  is  usually  wise  to  cock  the  hay  the  second  day 
if  it  is  too  green  to  store,  and  leave  in  the  cocks  a  day  or 
two,  then  open  up  cocks  for  an  hour  or  so  to  the  sun  and 
wind,  then  put  under  shelter,  either  in  barn  or  stack. 


Fig.  53. — The  hay  sling-  in  operation  in  unloading  hay.  Two  or 
three  sling  loads  will  take  off  a  large  wagon-load  of  hay  and  leave 
very  little  scatterings. 


Damaged  by  Hot  Sun. — The  old  adage,  "Make  hay 
while  the  sun  shines,"  is  good  advice,  but  ma^y  be  over- 
done. Hay,  especially  clover,  that  has  been  exposed  to 
the  sun  for  very  long  is  very  materially  injured,  as  the 
thin  leaves  are  dried  up  and  lost  and  little  is  left  but 
stems.  The  heat  of  the  siun  is  very  essential  to  evapo- 
rate the  moisture  from  the  leaves  and  stems.  This  may 
be  accomplished,  however,  by  curing  the  hay  in  the  cock 
or  windrow  and  without  allowing  the  sun  to  shine  di- 
rectly on  the  leaves. 

Cock  Covers  may  often  be  used  with  profit.  It  seems 
expensive  when  one  first  considers!  them,  but  if  one  con- 
siders that  bran  is  worth  $20.00  or  more  per  ton  and 
that  good  clover  hay  is  worth  very  nearly  half  as  much 


132  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

as  bran  for  feed,  he  must  acknowledge  that  the  differ- 
ence in  value  between  good  and  poor  hay  is  often  more 
than  the  cost  of  using  covers. 

Cock  covers  are  pieces  of  canvas  or  sheeting  about 
four  feet  square,  with  weights  sewed  in  each  corner, 
so  when  one  is  spread  over  a  hay  cock  the  wind  will 
not  blow  it  off.  Such  a  cover  helps  to  protect  hay,  while 
curing,  from  both  the  sun  and  the  rain. 

We  would  advise  our  readers  to  test  curing  clover 
largely  in  the  shade,  as  suggested  above,  with  at  least  one 
cock  of  hay,  then  compare  with  other  clover  cut  at  the 
same  time  but  exposed  to  the  sun  and  dew  for  two  or 
three  days. 

If  clover  is  cured  until  thoroughly  dry,  and  then  cock- 
ed, it  will  shed  very  little  water,  as  the  stiff  stems  stick 
out  in  every  direction  and  the  water  follows  them  down 
through  the  cock.  But  if  hay  is  cocked  when  only  partly 
dry,  the  stems  are  limber  and  wilted  and  so  hang  down 
over  the  sides  of  the  cock,  thereby  shedding  a  great  deal 
of  water. 
Questions : 

1.  In  what  ways  may  the  value  of  hay  be  reduced 
in  curing  ? 

2.  At  what  stage  of  growth  should  a  hay  crop  be  cut  ? 
Why? 

3.  What  is  gained  by  protecting  clover  hay  from  the 
sun  when  curing  it? 

4.  Do  you  think  it  will  pay  to  use  cock  covers  in 
curing  hay  ?     W^hy  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  cock  cover  large  enough  to  cover  80  lbs.  of 
hay  costs  20c.,  how  much  will  it  cost  for  enough  to 
cover  1  ton  of  hay? 

2.  If  cock  covers  can  be  usted  five  times  each  year 
and  will  last  5  years,  how  many  times  can  each  be  used 
during  its  life-time? 

3.  If  enough  cock  covers  to  cover  a  ton  of  hay 
cost  $5.00  and  can  be  used  25  times,  how  much  does  it 
cost  per  ton  for  cock  covers? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

THE  STANDING  OF  THE   FARMER. 

Qualification. — To  be  a  s'uccessful  farmer  one  must 
have  as  much  knowledge  and  ability  as  has  a  successful 
merchant,  banker,  manufacturer,  or  any  other  business 
man.  This  fact  is  now  quite  generally  recognized;  but 
it  is  not  long  since  people  believed  that  if  one  was  not 
intelligent  enough  to  do  anything  else  he  could  farm.  This 
latter  belief  was  true,  to  some  extent,  many  years  ago, 
when  the  land  was  newly  settled,  the  soil  was  rich,  and 
there  was  practically  no  market  for  anything  but  wheat, 
SOI  that  the  chief  requirements  of  a  farmer  were  to  plow, 
to  sow  and  to  reap.  The  more  able  farmers  were  more 
successful  than  the  others,  but  CA^en  the  careless  and  the 
thoughtless  succeeded  fairly  well  as  long  as  the  land  was 
rich  and  free.  These  crude  and  careless  methods  of  farm- 
ing and  the  number  of  farmers  who.  used  little  system 
or  good  business  management  caused  farming  to  be  con- 
sidered a  rather  inferior  calling.  Many  who  were  farm- 
ing were  doing  so  simply  because  they  could  not  get  out 
of  it,  and  not  because  they  liked  it. 

Conditions  Different. — Conditions  are  now  very  differ- 
ent. The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  in  many  cases  somewhat 
depleted,  so  that  careful  and  well-planned  systems  of 
cropping,  tillage  and  fertilization  must  be  employed  to 
secure  good  crops.  The  price  of  land  has  increased  until 
one  must  pay  from  $5,000.00  to  $25,000.00  for  a  160-acre 
farm  that  at  one  time  could  be  had  free.  The  country 
is  more  thickly  populated,  and  systems  of  transportation 
are  better,  so  that  nearly  any  product  raised  can  be 
marketed.  The  conditions  tend  to  raise  the  requirements 
of  the  farmer.  He  must  be  wide  awake,  intelligent  and 
ever  on  the  alert  for  better  methods  of  production.  Thus 
the  proper  management  of  a  farm  demands  as  high  a  de- 


134      ,    AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

gree  of  inteliigence  as  is  needed  in  other  walks  of  life,  and 
we  now  find  as  strong,  as  intelligent  and  as  well  educated 
men  and  women  on  the  farms  as  in  town.  On  this  ac- 
count no  one  is  now  ashamed  to  be  called  a  farmer.  And 
an  intelligent  and  successful  farmer  stands  as  well  in 
any  community  as  does  a  successful  banker,  business  or 
professional  man. 

Bright  Men  and  Women  Seek  the  Farm. — The  changed 
conditions  are  placing  more  and  more  bright  and  pro- 
gressive men  and  women  on  our  farms,  who  are  not 
ashamed  to  study  their  profession  and  to  put  their  best 
efforts  into  it.  As  a  consequence  we  have  agricultural 
schools  and  colleges,  agricultural  papers  and  magazines, 
and  are  developing  a  true  science  of  agriculture.  We 
no  longer  depend  upon  "chance"  or  "good  luck"  for 
results  in  farming,  but  know  the  conditions  that  are 
necessary  to  good  resrults  and  plan  and  study  to  supply 
these  conditions.  No  one  is  now  ridiculed  for  studying 
farming;  but  any  boy  or  girl  may  well  be  proud  of  hav- 
ing been  born  and  raised  on  a  farm  and  educated  for 
the  profession  of  farming. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  did  it  require  less  thought  and  intelligence 
to  farm  many  years  ago  than  it  does  now  ? 

2.  Why  was  farming  considered  to  be  an  inferior 
occupation  ? 

3.  What  has  raised  farming  to  as  high  a  degree  as 
any  other  occupation? 

4.  What  is  the  result  of  this  good  standing  for  the 
farmer  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  In  1870  A  took  a  160-acre  homestead.  The  land 
cost  him  nothing.  He  built  $300.00  worth  of  buildings.  He 
had  4  horses  worth  $75.00  each,  2  cows  worth  $30.00,  2 
hogs  worth  $7.50  each,  20  chickens  worth  25c.  each  and 
$200.00  worth  of  machinery.  How  much  had  he  invested  ? 
How  large  an  income  must  he  get  to  pay  6  per  cent  inter- 
est on  his  investment  ? 


ROTATION   OP   CROPS.  135 

2.  In  1910  A's  farm  is  worth  $100.00  per  acre;  he 
has  $800.00  worth  of  horses,  $1,000.00  worth  of  cattle, 
$150.00  worth  of  hogs,  $50  worth  of  poultry,  and  $1,000 
worth  of  machinery.  How  much  has  he  invested?  How 
large  an  income  must  be  receive  to  pay  6  per  cent,  in- 
terest on  his  investment? 

ROTATION   OF  CftOPS. 

Definition. — The  rotation  of  crops  means  changing 
the  crops  year  after  year  on  any  field,  so  that  no  field 
grows  the  same  kind  of  a  crop  for  several  years  in  suc- 
cesision. 

If  a  field  were  sown  to  wheat  one  year,  barley  an- 
other year  and  clover  another,  we  would. say  that  the 
crops  are  being  rotated  on  that  field. 

Good  farmers  are  practicing  more  or  less  some  plan  of 
crop  rotation  on  their  farms,  because  they  have  found 
from  experience  that  their  fields  yield  better  if  the  crops 
are  changed  about  than  when  one  field  raises  the  same 
kind  of  crop  for  several  years  in  succession. 

Larger  yields  mean  larger  incomes.  Larger  incomes 
enable  farmers  to  have  better  homes,  better  Schools, 
better  roads;  in  short,  to  live  better  in  every  way.  We 
should  therefore  be  interested  in  knowing  more  about 
conditions  which  have  a  tendency  to  increase  yields. 

Systematic  Rotation. — A  still  better  practice,  because 
it  usually  results  in  larger  yields  and  more  profit,  is  to 
rotate  crops  in  some  regular  order,  so  one  may  know 
several  years  in  advance  what  crop  will  grow  on  each 
field.  Such  a  plan  of  cropping  is  called  a  systematic 
rotation.  A  very  simple  form  of  a  systematic  rotation 
is  to  divide  the  tillable  land  into  three  fields  of  about 
equal  size  and  crop  them  as  shown  in  the  following  chart : 
Field  A.  Field  B.  Field  C. 

1909  Oats.  Clover.  Corn. 

1910  Clover.  Corn.  Oats. 

1911  Corn.  Oats.  Clover. 
From  the  above  chart  one  will  see  that  each  field  has 

a  different  crop  on  it  each  year  for  three  years,  but  that 


136  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

the  farm  is  producing  the  same  crops  each  year.  That 
is,  one  field  is  in  corn,  one  in  oats  and  one  in  clover. 
Corn  always  follows  clover,  oats  always  follows  corn  and 
clover  always  follows  oats.  If  one  is  practicing  such  a 
rotation  he  can  tell,  as  many  years  ahead  as  he  wishes, 
to  what  crop  a  certain  field  will  be  planted.  This  enables 
him  to  make  his  plans  accordingly.  He  knows  how  many 
acres  of  corn,  oats  and  clover  he  will  have  each  year,  and 
about  how  many  bushels  or  tons  he  can  ordinarily  ex- 
pect. Thus  he  may  provide  the  proper  amount  of  stor- 
age room  for  his  crops.  He  will  know  about  how  much 
stock  he  can  keep  each  year,  and  can  have  just  the 
amount  of  machinery  he  needs. 

Effect  on  the  Soil. — Another  advantage  gained  by  fol- 
lowing such  a  rotation  is  that  each  crop  leaves  the  soil 
in  good  condition  for  the  crop  that  is  to  follow.  If  the 
corn  crop  is  well  cultivated  the  oats  may  be  sown  the 
following  spring  without  plowing  the  land — simply  by 
discing  the  surface  and  making  a  good  seed  bed.  The 
clover  seed  is  sown  with  the  oats,  and  makes  the  crop  the 
year  after  without  extra  seeding.  Thus  three  crops  are 
grown  and  the  ground  is  plowed  but  once.  That  is,  it 
is  plowed  for  the  corn,  grows  the  corn  crop,  then  a  crop 
of  oats  and  a  crop  of  clover  before  it  is  again  plowed. 

Rotation  also  helps  to  keep  fields  free  from  weeds. 
If  the  corn  crop  is  well  cultivated  many  weed  seeds  are 
given  a  favorable  chance  to  grow,  then  the  next  cultiva- 
tion kills  them.  The  clover  crop,  as  you  remember,  is 
cut  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  which  is  earlier  than  most 
weeds  ripen  their  seeds.  The  crop  is  usually  cut  again 
for  hay  or  seed,  so  weeds  are  practically  given  no  chance 
to  ripen  seed. 

All  of  these  advantages  are  gained  simply  by  having 
a  systematic  rotation  plan  to  follow,  and  without  increas- 
ing the  amount  of  work.  But  it  does  require  a  little 
more  thought  than  does  a  haphazard  system  of  cropping. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FIELD  CROPS.  137 

Questions : 

1.  What  is  meant  by  rotation  of  crops? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  systematic  rotation? 

3.  Show  and  explain  the  cropping  of  a  farm  in  a 
simple  systematic  rotation. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  rotation? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  but  one  third  of  a  field  is  plowed  each  year 
if  cropped  to  a  3-year  rotation,  how  much  is  saved  each 
year  on  a  90-acre  field,  if  it  costs  $1.20  per  acre  to  plow? 

2.  If  it  costs  $6.68  per  acrb  to  raise  a  crop  of  hay 
and  $9.35  per  acre  to  raise  a  crop  of  oats,  how  much  less 
does  it  cost  to  raise  30  acres  of  hay  than  to  raise  30  acres 
of  oats  ? 

3.  If  the  rotation  of  crops  adds  15  bu.  per  acre  to 
'the  corn  crop,  how  much  will  it  increase  the  yield  on  35 
acres?  How  much  is  the  increased  yield  of  corn  worth 
at  35c  per  bu.  ? 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   FIELD  CROPS. 

Three  Classes. — There  are  a  great  many  different 
systems  of  rotation.  Some  are  good  and  some  are  not 
good,  and  it  is  well  to  study  a  few  of  the  principles  of 
rotation,  that  we  may  easily  know  whether  a  certain 
rotation  is  likely  to  give  good  results  or  not. 

We  rotate  crops  in  order  to  get  good  yields,  hence  we 
must  know  something  about  the  effect  of  each  crop  upon 
the  soil,  so  we  may  know  in  what  condition  the  soil  will 
be  left  for  the  next  crop. 

To  simplify  a  study  of  the  general  field  crops,  they 
may  all  be  placed  in  three  classes,  grain  crops,  grass 
crops  and  cultivated  crops,  basing  the  classification  on 
the  effect  each  class  has  on  the  soil. 

Grain  Crops. — ^Under  grain  crops  we  can  place  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  flax,  speltz,  millet  and  other  crops  that  grow 
but  one  year  from  one  seeding  and  are  not  cultivated 
while  they  are  growing.  This  class  of  crops  has  a  com- 
paratively small  root  system,  and  as  a  consequence  very 


138 


AGRICULTURE    FOR    YOUNG    FOLKS. 


k 


bCbJD 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  FIELD  CROPS.  139 

little  vegetable  matter  is  left  in  the  soil  when  the  crop 
is  removed.  From  the  time  they  are  sown  until  they 
are  ripe  is  usually  long  enough  to  allow  many  of  the 
worst  weeds  to  ripen  seeds,  so  these  crops  have  a  ten- 
dency to  make  land  more  weedy  year  after  year.  Grain 
crops  are  likely  to  be  sold  from  the  farm,  thus  removing 
a  large  amount  of  fertility. 

Grass  Crops. — Under  grass  crops  we  can  place  timo- 
thy, bromus,  blue  grass,  red  top  and  all  the  common  clov- 
ers and  alfalfa.  These  crops  are  usually  used  for  hay  or 
pasture.  They  all  grow  two  or  more  years,  and  are  not 
cultivated  during  their  growth.  They  develop  heavy 
root  systems,  therefore  add  much  vegetable  matter  to 
the  soil.  Grass  crops  are  usually  harvested  two  or  more 
times  during  the  year,  and  each  crop  grows  so  quickly 
that  few  weeds  have  a  chance  to  ripen  seed.  This  crop 
is  usually  fed  to  stock  on  the  farm,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  fertility  removed  by  the  crop  is  returned  in  the  form 
of  manure. 

Cultivated  Crops. — Under  cultivated  crops  we  can 
place  corn,  potatoes  and  root  crops;  as  mangels,  beets, 
etc.,  or  any  crop  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated  while 
growing.  The  cultivation  destroys  many  weeds,  con- 
serves moisture  and  causes  the  liberation  of  plant  food; 
in  fact,  on  very  rich  soil  much  more  plant  food  is  lib- 
erated than  is  used  by  the  crop,  and  much  is  washed  out. 
On  this  account  cultivated  crops  are  much  more  exhaus- 
tive of  soil  fertility  than  are  the  other  classes  of  crops. 
The  corn  and  root  crops  are  usually  largely  fed  on  the 
farm,  hence  most  of  the  fertility  removed  by  them  is 
returned  in  the  manure  produced. 

A  Good  Rotation  will  usually  include  one  or  more  crops 
from  each  of  these  three  classes.  The(  first  rotation  men- 
tioiK3d  on  page  135,  wheat,  barley  and  clover,  is  not  a 
very  good  rotation,  because  it  includes  no  cultivated 
crop  to  clear  the  land  of  weeds  and  to  conserve  moisture. 
The  other  three-year  rotation  mentioned,  of  corn,  oats 
and  clover,  has  one  crop  from  each  class  and  is  a  very 
good  rotation  for  many  farms. 


140  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

A  rotation  is  usually  called  a  three,  four,  five,  six  or 
seven  year  rotation,  according  to  the  number  of  crops 
included  in  it. 

The  kind  of  rotation  suited  to  any  farm  must  be 
worked  out  to  provide  the  grain,  feed  and  pasturage 
needed  on  the  farm.  It  is  possible  to  plan  a  good  rota- 
tion for  any  farm ;  but  it  requires  considerable  knowledge 
and  ability  to  select  the  very  best  one.  To  properly 
manage  a  farm  requires  as  much  knowledge,  ability  and 
judgment  as  to  properly  conduct  any  other  business  or 
profession. 
Questionsi: 

1.  What  is  gained  by  classifying  field  crops? 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  grain  crops,  and 
what  effect  do  they  have  on  the  soil? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  grass  crops,  and 
what  effect  do  they  have  on  the  soil  ? 

4.  What  do  you  understand  by  cultivated  crops,  and 
what  effect  do  they  have  on  the  soil? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  bushel  of  wheat  removes  27c.  worth  of  fer- 
tility from  the  soil.  How  much  is  removed  from  an  acre 
yielding  20  bu.  of  wheat? 

2.  A  crop  of  clover  yielding  2  tons  per  acre  removes 
100  pounds  of  mineral  elements  worth  5I/2C.  per  pound. 
What  is  the  value  of  fertility  sold  in  two  tons  of  clover 
hay? 

3.  A  bushel  of  corn  removes  14c.  worth  of  fertility 
from  the  soil.  How  much  is  removed  from  an  acre  yield- 
ing 50  bu.? 

HOW  PLANT  FOOD  IS  MADE  AVAILABLE. 

Abundance  of  Insoluble  Plant  Food. — We  learned  in 
a  previous  chapter  that  plants,  like  animals,  in  order  to 
grow  must  be  fed.  Plants  can  make  use  of  food  only 
when  it  is  soluble — that  is,  when  it  will  dissolve  in  water 
as  sugar  will  dissolve  in  tea.  If  we  think  for  a  minute 
we  will  realize  that  very  little  plant  food  in  a  soluble 


HOW  PLANT  FOOD  IS  MADE  AVAILABLE.  141 

form  can  remain  in  the  soil;  because,  with  the  heavy 
rains  we  have,  a  large  part  of  any  soluble  material  pres- 
ent would  be  washed  out  of  the  soil. 

Chemists  who  can  analyze  the  soil  and  tell  of  what 
it  is  composed  have  found  that  there  are,  in  most  of  our 
soils,  large  amounts  of  the  elements  needed  by  plants, 
but  that  they  are  present  in  an  insoluble  form.  (i.  e., 
they  will  not  dissolve  in  water) .  The  problem  of  the 
farmer,  then,  seems  to  be  to  so  manage  his  fields  that 
plant  food  will  be  made  soluble  while  the  plants  are 
growing  and  can  use  it,  before  it  is  washed  out  of  the 
soil. 

Plant  Food  Made  Soluble.— The  chief  method  by 
which  plant  food  is  made  soluble  in  the  soil  is  by  the 
decomposition  or  rotting  of  vegetable  matter.  Vegetable 
matter  is  any  plant  or  part  of  plants.  Vegetable  mat- 
ter in  a  cultivated  sioil  is  usually  roots  and  stubble  of 
the  crops  grown  and  whatever  bam  yard  manure 
has  been  applied.  In  order  that  decomposition  may 
take  place,  at  least  three  conditions  must  exist,  and  it 
is  very  largely  to  maintain  these  conditions'  that  fields 
are  cultivated.  (By  cultivation  we  mean  plowing,  har- 
rowing, discing,  as  well  as  the  work  done  by  cultivators.) 
The  three  conditions  referred  to  are  a  reasonable  supply 
^f  vegetable  matter,  and  enough  heat,  air  and  moisture. 

Vegetable  Matter. — ^It  is  evident  that  vegetable  mat- 
ter cannot  decompose  in  the  soil  unless  it  is  present. 
Newly  broken  fields  usually  have  a  good  supply  of  veg- 
etable matter,  made  up  from  the  accumulated  roots, 
leaves,  etc.,  of  the  wild  plants  that  have  grown  there 
before  it  was  broken.  After  the  land  is  cultivated  the 
supply  is  maintained  by  methods  mentioned  above. 

Air. — It  would  seem  that  there  should  be  plenty  of 
air  present;  but  if  there  is  too  much  water  in  the  soil, 
air  is  crowded  out,  or  if  the  soil  is  too  hard  and  com- 
pact, air  does  not  enter  it  freely. 

Moisture. — Moisture  in  the  soil  comes  chiefly  from 
rains,  and  these  the  farmers  cannot  control.  Neverthe- 
less,  cultivation  does  much   to   save  moisture.     1st,   by 


142  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

making  the  soil  loose  on  top,  so  that  any  rain  that  falls 
readily  settles  into  the  soil  instead  of  running  off.  2nd, 
by  keeping  the  surface  of  the  soil  loose,  moisture  does 
not  rise  to  the  surface,  hence  the  sun  and  wind  do  not 
evaporate  it  so  readily.  3rd,  by  keeping  the  soil  firm 
from  the  plant  roots  down  to  the  subsoil,  moisture  rises 
to  the  roots  from  the  subsoil  by  means  of  capillarity. 
(Capillarity  is  the  force  that  causes  oil  to  rise  in  a 
lamp  wick,  or  coffee  to  pass  up  through  a  lump  of  sugar 
when  only  one  side  of  the  lump  touches  the  coffee.) 

Conditions  for  Decomposition. — We  know  from  com- 
mon examples  that  vegetable  matter  will  not  decompose 


Pig.   57. — A  Crop  of  Clover  Hay.     One   of   the  crops   with  a   heavy 
root  system  that  adds  vegetable  matter  to  the   soil. 

without  the  presence  of  both  air  and  moisture.  Fruit 
in  the  jar  and  ensilage  in  the  silo  are  vegetable  matter, 
and  they  have  moisture;  but  they  do  not  decompose,  be- 
cause air  is  kept  out.  Hay  in  a  mow  is  vegetable  mat- 
ter, a|nd  has  plenty  of  air;  but  it  does  not  decompose, 
because  it  is  dry. 

When  vegetable  matter  is  decomposed  the  materials 
of  which  it  is  composed  are  liberated.  This  liberated 
material  is  food  for  growing  plants.  If  a  little  air  gets 
in  a  fruit  jar  the  fruit  quickly  turns  sour.  When  vege- 
table matter  rots  in  the   soil  it   also   becomes   slightly 


ROTATION   MAINTAINS  VEGETABLE   MATTER.  143 

sour;  from  this  we  know  that  it  gives  off  acid  (or  some- 
thing sour,),  and  this  acid  helps  the  water  in  the  soil 
to  dissolve  some  of  the  mineral  materials  off  of  the  soil 
particles.  Thus,  not  only  is  the  material  of  which  vege- 
table matter  is  composed  liberated  by  decomposition,  but 
some  of  the  insoluble  mineral  plant-food  is  made  solu- 
ble and  available  as  food  for  growing  plants. 
Questions : 

1.  "Why  cannot  much  soluble  plant  food  remain  in 
the  soil? 

2.  What  is  the  farmer's  problem  in  regard  to  soluble 
plant  food? 

3.  What  ia  the  chief  method  by  which  plant  food 
is  made  soluble? 

4.  What  forms  the  vegetable  matter  in  a  newly  cul- 
tivated field?    In  an  old  field? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  bu.  of  wheat  contains  V/i  lbs.  nitrogen  (N), 
%  lb.  phosphoric  acid  (P205)  and  1-3  lb.  of  potash 
(K20).  How  many  pounds  of  each  element  are  removed 
from  the  farm  when  20  bu.  of  Avheat  are  sold  ? 

2.  A  bu.  of  corn  contains  2-3  lb.  of  N,  i/4  lb.  P205 
and  1/4  lb.  of  K20.  How  many  pounds  of  each  element 
are  removed  from  the  farm  when  40  bu.  of  corn  are  sold? 

3.  Average  stable  manure  contains  .51%  N,  .41% 
P205  and  .51%  of  K20.  How  many  pounds  of  each 
element  in  1  ton  of  manure  ?    In  8  tons  ? 

ROTATION     MAINTAINS    VEGETABLE    MATTER. 

Worn-out  Farms. — One  often  hears  the  remark  that 
a  certain  farm  is  worn  out  or  exhausted.  The  remark 
is  usually  based  on  the  fact  that  the  farm  in  question 
no  longer  yields  good  crops.  Many  farms  that  formerly 
yielded  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre 
now  yield  but  from  five  to  ten  bushels.  When  we  con- 
sider the  fact  that  some  of  the  land  in  Europe  has  been 
cultivated  for  centuries  and  is  still  producing  large  yields, 
we  must  conclude  that  land  in  the   old  world  is  much 


144 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


better,  or  that  farms  in  this  country  that  are  giving  such 
low  yields  are  not  exhausted  but  are  simply  not  in  good 
condition. 

Our  faith  in  the  latter  conclusion  is  strengthened  by 
the  fact  that  most  of  us  know  of  instances  where  men 
have  taken  these  run-down  farms,  and  after  a  few  years 
have  been  able  to  get  as  large  yields  from  them  as  ever. 


xr>j„    5g Spreading  manure.     Adding  vegetable   matter  and   plant 

food    to   the  soil.     Manure   is   spread   much    more    evenly   and    more 
easily  with  a  manure  spreader  than  by  hand. 

From  the  facts  at  hand,  we  must  conclude  that  very 
likely  the  reason  these  farms  are  at  present  unproduc- 
tive is  because  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  the  lib- 
eration of  plant  food.  That  is,  the  plant  food  may  be 
present,  but  is  not  soluble  so  plants  can  get  it  easily. 
On  page  141  we  learned  that  the  most  common  way  m 
which  plant  food  is  made  soluble  is  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  vegetable  matter.  This  leads  us  to  believe,  then, 
that  the  reason  many  farms  are  unproductive  is  because 
some  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  decomposition  are 
lacking. 


ROTATION  MAINTAINS  VEGETABLE  MATTER.  145 

Lack  Vegetable  Matter. — The  condition  we  are  most 
likely  to  find  lacking  in  these  unproductive  soils  is  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  vegetable  matter.  A  good  rotation  of 
crops  provides  for  maintaining  the  supply  of  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil,  because  it  provides  that  each  field  shall 
grow  a  grass  crop  one  or  more  years  in  every  three  to  six 
years.  Grass  crops  have  heavy  root  systems  and  therefore 
add  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil. 

One  can  get  a  good  comparison  of  the  amount  of  veg- 
etable matter  added  by  grain  crops,  and  by  grass  crops, 
by  going  into  the  field  and  pulling  a  few  of  the  stubbles 
of  grain  and  of  clover  and  timothy.  One  will  find  that 
the  grain  stubble  is  pulled  up  very  easily  and  that  some 
digging  must  be  done  to  get  stubble  of  any  of  the  grass 
plants.     (Try  this.) 

In  the  simple  three-year  rotation,  corn,  grain  and 
clover,  discussed  on  page  135  you  will  see  that  each 
field  will  be  in  clover  once  every  three  years.  This  will 
add  sufficient  vegetable  matter  to  keep  the  soil  reason- 
ably well  supplied  during  the  other  two  years  while 
the  corn  and  grain  crops,  or  crops  that  exhaust  the  vege- 
table matter,  are  growing. 

Cultivated  Crops,  as  corn,  probably  return  as  much 
vegetable  matter  to  the  soil  in  the  roots  and  stubble  as 
do  the  grain  crops,  but  they  use  during  their  growth 
a  great  deal  more  than  do  the  grain  crops,  because  of 
the  cultivation  given  them.  We  have  learned  that  mois- 
ture and  air  are  essential  to  decomposition.  By  the  cul- 
tivation of  these  crops  the  soil  is  loosenedj  on  top,  so  air 
can  enter  freely  and  so  moisture  does  not  rise  to  the 
surface  to  evaporate,  as  it  does  in  a  grain  field  that  is 
not  cultivated  while  the  crop  is  growing.  Thus  the  two 
essentials  to  decomposition,  air  and  moisture,  are  main- 
tained, consequently  decomposition  is  more  rapid  and 
more  of  the  vegetable  matter  is  decomposed. 

A  rotation  which  provides  for  growing  grass  on  one 
third  of  the  tillable  land  furnishes  a  great  deal  of  pas- 
ture and  hay,  which  usually  is  an  incentive  to  keep  more 


146  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

live    stock.     Hence   more   manure    is  produced   than   is 
usually  available   on  a  grain  farm.     More  manure  can 
be   applied  to  the  fields;    and  this,  too,   has  a   marked 
effect  in  keeping  up  the  supply  of  vegeta,ble  matter. 
Questions : 

1.  What  is  generally  lacking  when  a  soil  ceases  to 
be  productive? 

2.  In  vt^hat  ways  does  the  rotation  of  crops  tend 
to  increase  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  ? 

3.  How  can  you  prove  that  grass  crops  add  more 
vegetable  matter  to  the  soil  than  do  grain  crops? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  It  costs  $9.16  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  oats. 
How  much  will  it  cost  to  grow  33  1-3  acres  of  oats  ? 

2.  It  costs  $11.66  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  corn. 
How  much  will  it  cost  to  grow  33  1-3  acres  of  corn  ? 

3.  It  cost  $6.18  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  mixed 
hay.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  grow  33  1-3  acres  of 
mixed  hay? 

4.  It  costs  $9.86  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  wheat. 
How  much  will  it  cost  to  grow  100  acres  of  wheat? 

5.  Using  the  figures  given  in  the  preceding  examples, 
how  much  more  does  it  cost  to  grow  100  acres  of  wheat 
than  to  crop  100  acrea  in  a  rotation  with  1-3  in  corn,  1-3  in 
oats  and  1-3  in  hay  ? 

PLANNING    FARMS. 

Farm  and  Farmer. — In  the  last  few  pages  we  have 
learned  something  about  the  rotation  of  crops,  its  effects 
on  the  soil,  and  how  to  tell  whether  or  not  a  certain 
rotation  would  be  likely  to  keep  the  soil  in  good  con- 
dition and  give  good  yields.  Before  we  can  plan  a 
suitable  rotation  for  any  particular  farm  we  must  know 
certain  facts  about  the  farm  and  the  farmer. 

Sketch  of  Farm. — We  should  have  a  rough  sketch 
of  the  farm  in  question,  showing  its  shape  and  size,  the 
location  of  the  farmstead  (farmstead  includes  buildings, 
yards,  orchards,  garden,  drives  and  lawn)  the  size  and 


PLANNING   FARMS. 


147 


shape  of  the  fields  and  pastures,  the  fences  and  lanes 
and  the  sloughs  and  waste  places.  We  should  know  also 
the  kind  of  soil,  the  location  of  the  farm,  the  amount 
and  yields  of  the  different  crops  grown,  the  markets,  and 
the  ability  and  desires  of  the  farmer. 

The  Faxmstead. — The  location  of  the  farmstead  deter- 
mines the  distance  each  field  will  be  from  the  base  of 
operation,  the  distance  live  stock  will  have  to  go  to 
pasture  on  the  different  fields,  the  amount  of  lane  neces- 
sary to  get  them  there,  and  whether  or  not  they  must 
be  driven  aeross  a  public  road  or  a  railway  track. 


Fig.  59. — It  costs  much  more 
per  acre  to  plow  a  smaU  ir- 
regular field  like  the  above, 
than  a  long  field  as  shown 
in  Fig.  60. 


Fig.  60. — Plowing  a  long,  reg- 
ular field.  Compare  with  Fig. 
59.  W^hich  field  would  you 
prefer  to  plow? 


The  Size  and  Shape  of  the  Fields  will  determine  the 
size  and  kinds  of  machines  that  may  be  used  and  the  type 
of  farming  to  be  done.  If  there  are  only  a  few  small  and 
irregular  fields  one  cannot  grow  grain  to  advantage 
and  compete  with  farmers  who  have  large,  straight,  level 
fields.  On  the  few  small  fields  the  farmer  would  need 
to  grow  some  crop  he  could  care  for  to  advanta,ge  with 
small  machines,  and  he  would  also  want  to  grow  some 
crop  that  would  bring  in  considerable  per  acre.  Five 
or  ten  acres  of  grain  or  corn  would  not  bring  in  an  in- 
come large  enough  to  support  a  family,  but  five  or  ten 


148  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

acres  in  small  fruit  or  vegetables  would  produce  prod- 
ucts of  sufficient  value  to  make  a  good  income  and  pro- 
vide labor  for  a  fair-sized  family. 

Fencing". — The  amount  of  fencing  on  a  farm  and  the 
cost  per  acre  of  fencing  the  various  fields  are  factors 
which  would  influence  one  in  deciding  on  the  kind  and 
amount  of  live  stock  to  be  kept. 

Waste  Land,  or  land  which  for  some  reason  cannot 
be  cultivated  with  the  regular  fields,  must  be  consider- 
ed in  planning  a  rotation.  If  there  is  any  considerable 
amount  of  such  land  that  can  be  used  only  for  hay  or 
pasture,  stock  must  be  provided  to  utilize  this  feed,  and 
very  likely  a  smaller  proportion  of  the  tillable  land  would 
be  needed  for  hay  and  pasture,  so  that  a  correspondingly 
larger  acreage  could  be  devoted  to  other  crops. 

The  Soil  and  the  Location  determine  the  kind  of  prod- 
ucts that  can  be  raised  and  the  kinds  desirable  to  raise. 
One  must  not  plan  a  rotation  providing  for  a  large  acre- 
age of  corn,  in  a  community  or  on  a  soil  not  adapted  to 
corn  production.  Likewise  it  would  not  be  well  to  plan 
to  raise  a  heavy  bulky  crop,  like  potatoes,  where  one 
is  a  long  distance  from  market,  or  to  plan  to  keep  dairy 
stock  where  facilities  are  poor  for  marketing  dairy  prod- 
ucts, or  to  plan  to  keep  a  lot  of  beef  stock  or  hogs  where 
grain  feed,  as  corn  or  barley,  is  difficult  to  grow. 

The  Acreage  and  Yields  of  the  different  crops  that  have 
been  grown  are  good  indications  of  the  type  of  farming 
carried  on  in  the  community,  the  condition  of  the  farm 
and  the  kind  of  farming  with  which  the  owner  is  fa- 
miliar and  best  adapted  to  do. 

The  Ability  and  Desires  of  the  Farmer  are  probably  the 
most  important  consideration  of  all.  If  a  man  does  not 
like  live  stock  or  a  certain  kind  of  farming,  it  is  very 
likely  he  will  not  succeed  with  it,  though  the  plan  of 
managing  the  farm  might  be  excellent.  Likewise  a 
farmer  might  have  considerable  ability  as  a  market  gar- 
dener or  in  raising  horses  or  sheep,  but  might  fail  at 
dairying  or  general  farming. 


ARRANGEMENTS   OF  FIELDS.  149 

Questions : 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  facts  we  should  know  about 
a  farm  to  enable  us  to  plan  a  suitable  rotation  ? 

2.  What  does  the  location  of  the  farm  determine? 

3.  What  should  the  size  and  shape  of  the  fields  deter- 
mine? The  amount  of  fencing?  The  waste  land?  The 
soil  and  location?  The  size  of  the  farm  and  yields? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  one  raises  10  acres  of  wheat  yielding  20  bu. 
per  acre,  how  much  is  his  crop  worth  at  67c.  per  bu  ? 

2.  If  one  raises  10  acres  of  potatoes  yielding  150 
bu.  per  acre,  how  much  is  his  crop  worth  at  35c.  per  bu? 

3.  If  one  raises  10  acres  of  onions  yielding  400  bu. 
per  acre,  how  much  is  his  crop  worth  at  50c.  per  bu.  ? 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    FIELDS. 

A  Map. — If  one  were  to  make  a  map  of  the  average 
farm,  showing  all  of  the  fields  as  the  farm  is  cropped 
for  one  year,  he  would  likely  be  surprised  at  the  number 
of  fields  and  their  irregular  shape.  Often  a  little  careful 
planning  will!  result  in  a  great  saving  of  time  and  labor. 

Fields  for  a  Rotation. — If  the  rotation  of  crops  is  to 
be  practiced,  the  farm  must  be  divided  into  as  many 
fields  as  there  are  years  in  th©  rotation  or  rotations.  To 
do  this  in  a  way  to  be  most  economical  of  fences  and  to 
get  the  fields  properly  located,  necessitates  a  careful 
study  of  conditions.  In  arranging  the  fields  on  any  farm 
it  is  desirable  to  (1)  Have  fields  of  uniform  size.  (2)  Have 
fields  of  convenient  shape  to  work.  (3)  Have  one  end 
of  each  field  as  near  to  the  farmstead  as  possible.  (4) 
Economize  in  fencing.  (5)  Make  the  best  use  of  all 
parts  of  the  farm. 

Uniform  Size. — Fields  should  be  of  uniform  size  to 
make  the  farming  business  systematic,  so  a  like  amount 
of  various  crops  may  be  grown  each  year.  This  regu- 
lates the  amount  of  labor  and  machinery  needed  and 
live  stock  that  may  be  kept,  and  makes  possible  a  really 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  farm  business. 

Shape. — As  a  rule  long  fields  are  more  desirable  than 
square  ones,  as  machines  can  be  used  on  such  fields  to 


150 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


better  advantage,  but  at  the  same  time  this  must  not 
be  overdone,  especially  if  the  fields  are  to  be  fenced,  for 
long  fields  require  more  fencing  per  acre  than  do  shorter 
ones. 

Distance  from  Farmstead. — A  great  many  trips  must 
be  made  each  year  to  each  field  and  a  difference  of 
several  rods  in  distance  from  the  farm  buildings  makes 
a  great  difference  in  a  year  or  in  a  lifetime.  Figure  61 
illustrates  a  160-acre  farm  in  Dakota  County,  (a)  as 
the  fields  are  now  arranged,  and  (b)  as  they  very  likely 


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Fig.  61. — A  160-acre  farm.  (a)  Fields  poorly  arranged,  (b)  Fields 
well  arranged.  Note  amount  of  fencing  required  to  enclose  all 
fields   in    (a)    and   compare   with   (b). 

will  be  arranged  when  a  systematic  rotation  is  adopted. 
The  whole  of  this  farm  is  tillable.  A  study  of  these 
two  plans  shows  that  by  the  re-arrangement  of  fields 
there  would  be  a  saving  of  252  rods  of  fencing  if  all 
fields  were  to  be  fenced.  In  the  new  plan,  the  fields 
are  of  excellent  shape  to  work,  are  all  the  same  size, 
and  the  average  distance  of  the  fields  from  the  farm- 
stead is  24  rods,  while  in  the  old  plan  the  average  dis- 
tance to  the  fields  is  70  rods. 

Economize  in  Fencing. — The  size  and  shape  of  fields 
have  much  to  do  Avitli  the  amount  of  fencing  required 
to  enclose  an  acre.  Fig.  62.  (See  Arithmetic  lesson  on 
next  page.) 


PLANNING    FARMS. 


151 


If  one  wishes  to  divide  an  80-acre  farm  into  5  fields 
of  equal  size,  there  is  room  for  study.  The  proper  solu- 
tion may  mean  quite  a  saving  in  fencing  and  in  ©Derating 
the  fields.  The  three  plans  a,  b,  and  c,  in  Figure  62, 
illustrate  three  waj^s  of  dividing  an  80-acre  farm 
into  five  equal  sized  fields.  An  80-acre  farm  is 
usually  80  rods  wide  and  160  rods  long.  If  it  is  divided 
as  shown  in  (a),  640  rods  of  fencing  would  be  required 
for  the  inside  fences.  If  divided  as  shown  in  (b),  448 
rods  would  be  required,  and  if  divided  as  shown  in  (c) 
only  426  rods  would  be  required. 

7^ 


76 


76 


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4^ 

Fig-.  62. — An  SO-acre  farm  divided  into  five  fields  in  three  difeerent 
ways.  Figure  tiie  amount  of  fencing  required  to  enclose  the 
fields  in  each  case. 


Questions : 

1.  What   are  the    advantages   of  having  fields  uni- 
form in  size  if  one  practices  a  rotation  of  crops  ? 

2.  Can  a  farm  be  ^o  divided  as  to  make  any  differr 
ence  in  the  average  distance  of  fields  from  the  farmstead? 

3.  What  elfect  does  the  shape  of  fields  have  on  the 
amount  of  fencing  required  per  acre  to  enclose  them? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  1  rod  wide  and 
160  rods  long?  How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required 
to  enclose  it?     (160  square  rods  in  an  acre.) 


152 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


2.  How  many  acres  in  a  piece  of  land  16  rods  by  10 
rods?  How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  en- 
close it? 

3.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  40  rods  square? 
How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it? 
How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  per  acre? 

4.  How  many  acres  in  a  field  80  rods  square?  How 
many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it?  How 
many  rods  of  fencing  per  acre  ? 


A    PRACTICAL    ROTATION. 

Application. — To  apply  the  principles  of  crop  rota- 
tion and  farm  planning  to  an  actual  farm,  we  will  study 
one  on  which  a  good  system  of  rotation  has  been  prac- 
ticed for  several  years. 

The  Farm  w€  will 
take  is  a  160-acre  farm, 
one  and  a  half  miles  from 
Elk  River,  Minn.  The 
soil  is  light,  sandy  loam. 
The  owner,  Mr.  C.  E. 
Brown,  specializes  in 
growing  potatoes  and 
live  stock.  He  is  a  very 
careful  farmer,  so  a 
study  of  his  methods  and 
of  his  farm  will  be  valu- 
able. 
The     accompanying 

The  160-acre  farm  owned  by  chart.  Fig.  63,   shows  the 

"""^  ^^ior^nSsleln  lay  of  the  farm  and  the 


nRMANtUT 

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^^ 

FASrUKt 

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30  A 

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10  A 

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OATS 

Alio  MAHUU 

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'07-CORN   AMD 

POTATOES 
•o«  -  OATS 

'07- OATS 

•O•-ClOV^RA^I0 
MANUKfr. 

Vf,Vfl 

PAKM- 

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FipT.   63 

C.   E.   Brown 
which  a  three-year 


successfully  followed  for  a  num-  arrangement 

ber  of  years.  ^ 


of  the 
fields.  Nearly  half  of  the 
farm,  the  back  part,  is  broken  up  by  the  river  and  blufi's 
so  it  is  not  tillable  and  can  be  used  only  for  pasture. 
The  balance,  or  90  acres,  is  all  well  drained,  reasonably 
level  and  easily  worked. 

The  Rotation. — The  90  acres  of  tillable  land  is  divided 
into  three  30*-acre  fields,  or  rather  two  30-acre  fields  and 


A  PRACTICAL  ROTATION.  153 

a  10  and  a  20-acre  field.  These  two  smaller  fields  are 
farmed  as  though  they  were  only  one  field;  so  they 
make  the  third  30-acre  field.  One  field  raises  grain, 
one  field  raises  clover  and  one  field  raises  corn  and 
potatoes  each  year,  but  no  field  grows  the  same  kind 
of  a  crop  two  years  in  succession.  For  example,  the 
field  to  the  right  of  the  farmstead  produced  clover  in 
1906,  corn  and  potatoes  in  1907,  a*id  oats  in  1908. 

The  Potato  Crop. — The  chief  field  crop  that  is  raised 
for  sale  on  this  farm  is  potatoes,  so  the  whole  farm  is 
planned  to  give  good  crops  of  potatoes.  The  first  crop 
of  clover  is  cut  for  hay.  Sometimes  the  second  crop  is 
cut  for  seed,  but  more  often  it  is  plowed  under  to  add 
plant  food  for  the  potato  crop  which  is  to  follow.  All 
of  the  manure  made  on  the  farm  is  also  applied  to  the 
clover  land,  thus  making  an  ideal  place  for  potatoes. 
The  clover  and  manure  have  made  the  land  rich  and  the 
clover  crop  has  aided  in  cleaning  it  of  weeds.  The 
potatoes  have  a  clean,  rich  soil  in  which  to  grow. 

Com. — Only  a  part  of  the  clover  sod  plowed  up  is 
planted  to  potatoes.  The  balance  is  planted  to  corn. 
The  com^  and  potatoes  are  considered  as  one  crop  in  the 
rotation,  since  they  are  both  cultivated  crops  and  have 
about  the  same  effect  on  the  soil.  For  years  Mr.  Brown 
has  been  ambitious  to  raise  100  bu.  of  com  per  acre. 
He  has  not  quite  reached  that  yield  yet,  but  probably 
will.  He  gives  his  corn  land  the  same  careful  prepara- 
tion that  he  does  his  potato  land,  and  consequently  gets 
good  crops. 

Oats. — After  he  has  grown  his  crop  of  corn  and  pota- 
toes he  wishes  to  get  his  land  seeded  to  clover  again, 
because  he  has  found  that  clover  is  the  best  crop  he 
can  raise  to  get  his  land  in  good  condition  for  corn  and 
potatoes  again;  besides,  he  needs  the  clover  hay  for  his 
cows.  As  clover  must  be  sown  with  a  grain  crop,  he 
seeds  this  corn  and  potato  land  the  following  spring  to 
oats.  With  the  oats  he  sows  clover  and  timothy  seed, 
which  make  his  crop  the  year  after  the  oats  are  har- 
vested. 


154  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Clover. — Getting  a  catch  of  clover  is  the  key  to  Mr. 
Brown's  success  as  a  farmer,  so  he  takes  every  precau- 
tion to  be  sure  of  a  stand.  The  cultivation  given  the 
corn  and  potatoes  saves  moisture,  and  the  manure  and 
clover  in  the  soil  give  up  plant  food,  so  there  is  more 
moisture  and  plant  food  in  such  land  the  following  year 
than  there  would  be  if  the  field  had  been  pastured  or 
had  grown  a  crop  of  grain.  This  extra  moisture  and 
plant  food  help  to  start  the  clover  seed  that  is  sown 
with  the  oats  the  year  after  the  land  grows  corn  and  po- 
tatoes. 

Results. — That  this  kind  of  farming  pays  is  shown 
by  results.  Besides  good  crops  of  clover,  corn  and  oats, 
the  potato  crop  on  this  farm  brought  nearly  $100.00 
per  acre  in*  1908  and  $60.00  per  acre  in  1909.  As/  it  cost 
Mr.  Brown  about  $30.00  per  acre  to  raise  potatoes  it  is 
plain  that  he  has  made  a  profit  on  these  crops. 
Q,uestions : 

1.  "What  isl  the  rotation  practiced  on  the  farm  dis- 
cussed above? 

2.  How  is  the  land  prepared  for  potatoes? 

3.  What  crop  follows  potatoes  and  corn  in  this  ro- 
tation ? 

4.  What  crop  follows  the  oat  crop,  and  when  is  it 
seeded? 

Aritlimetic : 

1.  If  Mr.  Brown  raises  15  acres  of  potatoes  each 
year,  how  many  bushels  will  he  have  if  the  yield  is  165 
bu.  per  acre? 

2.  If  Mr.  Brown  raises  15  acres  of  corn  each  year, 
how  many  bushels  will  he  have  if  the  yield  is  50  bu. 
per  acre? 

3.  If  oats  yield  48  bu.  per  acre,  how  many  bushels 
will  30  acres  produce? 

A    FIVE-YEAR    ROTATION. 

Re-arrangement  of  a  Farm. — A  160-acre  farm  in  south- 
eastern Minnesota,  four  miles  from  a  good  milk  mar- 
ket was  cropped  in  1904  as  shown  in  Fig.  64.  This 
farmer    was    carrying    on    general    diversified    farming. 


A   FIVE-YEAR   ROTATION.  155 

and  without  changing  the  type  of  farming  in  the  least, 
his  farm  was  replanned  and  a  systematic  rotation  of 
crops  arranged,  that  would  certainly  make  the  farm 
more  attractive,  more  easily  worked,  and  more  produc- 
tive if  put  in  practice.  In  Fig.  64  note  the  small  and 
irregular  fields,  the  distance  some  of  them  are  from  the 
farmstead,  and  the  lack  of  system  in  cropping. 

Without  materially  changing  tlie  amount  of  land  de- 
voted to  each  kind  of  crop  this  farm  may  be  re-arranged 
in  five  uniform  fields  of  convenient  shape  and  size  (27 
acres  each)  and  one  end  of  each  field  be  asi  near  to  the 
farmstead  as  is  easily  possible  on  such  a  farm.  (See  Fig. 
65.)  The  12-acre  field  in  the  southwest  corner  is  too  wet 
to  cultivate,  so  is  left  as  permanent  meadow. 

Rotation. — A  five-year  rotation  w^ould  be  well  adapted 
to  such  a  farm,  as  it  would  provide  about  the  same 
amount  of  hay  and  pasturage  as  was  formerly  used. 
This  rotation  would  be  corn,  grain,  meadow  and  pasture. 
That  is,  one  field  would  produce  corn,  two  fields  would 
produce  grain,  one  would  produce  hay  and  one  would 
produce  pasture  each  year.  The  field  that  grows  corn 
the  first  year  would  produce  grain  the  second  and  third 
years,  meadow  the  fourth  year,  and  pasture  the  fifth  year. 

The  Grain  Crops. — The  first  grain  crop  after  the  corn 
would  be  sown  on  the  corn  land,  usually  without  plowing, 
but  simply  disking  it  well  so  as  to  make  a  good  seed  bed. 
After  this  grain  crop  was  harvested  the  land  would  be 
plowed  in  the  fall,  so  it  would  have  time  to  settle  down 
and  become  compact  by  spring.  The  next  spring  it  would 
be  sown  to  grain  again,  but  with  the  grain  grass  seed,  tim- 
othy and  clover,  would  be  sown  to  make  the  crop  for  the 
two  years  following. 

Meadow. — We  have  learned  that  grass  crops  as  meadow 
and  pasture  are  beneficial  to  the  soil,  as  they  clean  it  of 
weeds  and  add  vegetable  matter.  This  rotation  provides 
for  having  each  field  in  grass  tw^o  years  out  of  five.  The 
first  year  the  grass  would  be  cut  for  hay  and  the  second 
year  it  would  be  pastured. 


156 


AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


Pasture. — ^Pasturing  land  occasionally,  as  provided  in 
this  rotation,  is  beneficial  to  the  soil,  as  practically  all  of 
the  crop  grown  during  the  year  is  left  on  the  field  as 
manure,  and  the  development  of  the  roots  adds  vegetable 
matter  also.  Pasturing  usually  puts  la,nd  in  good  condi- 
tion for  other  crops.  One  can  drive  into  a  pasture 
at  any  time  during  the  summer ;  so  it  is  an  excellent  place 
to  haul  manure  when  the  other  fields  are  growing  crops. 
This  manure  plowed  under  with  the  pasture  sod  makes  a 
good  seed  bed  for  corn. 


Oats 


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64 


65 


Fig.  64. — A  160-acre  farm  in  southeastern  Minnesota,  cropped  in 
1904.     Compare  with  the  re-organized  plan  in  Fig.   65. 

Fig.  65. — The  160-acre  farm  re-organized  for  a  five-year  rotation. 
Note  convenient  shape  and  arrangement  of  fields,  and  that  there 
is  little  change  in  the  acreage  of  crops  grown.  The  fields  are 
simply  arranged  better  and  a  systematic  rotation  planned.  Com- 
pare with  Fig.  64. 


Corn.^ — ^In  this  rotation  corn  is  planted  on  manured 
pasture  sod  each  year.  This  is  a  very  desirable  place  for 
com,  and  usually  results  in  good  yields. 

We  wish  each  reader  would  carefully  study  the  ac- 
companying charts  and,  if  possible,  draw  them  and  put 
in  the  crop  that  would  be  grown  on  each  field  each  year. 
This  will  aid  you  in  thoroughly  understanding  this  rota- 
tion. The  figures  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5  indicate  the  1st,  2nd, 
3rd,  4th  and  5th  years  of  the  rotation.  You  will  observe 
that  each  crop  is  produced  each  year. 


FARM   ACCOUNTS.  157 

This  five-year  rotation  is  a  good  one  for  many  farms, 
and  every  farm  boy  ten  years  old  and  over  should  thor- 
oughly understand  it  and  its  advantages  over  no  rotation. 
Such  a  rotation  tends  to  keep  the  fields  clean  of  weeds, 
productive,  and  to  economize  labor.  Each  field  is  plowed 
but  twice  in  five  years  and  seeded  but  three  times  in  the 
five  years.  Still  it  is  kept  in  good  condition  for  the  crop 
it  is  to  grow.  This  is  because  the'  crops  are  so  arranged 
that  each  crop  aids  in  fitting  the  soil  for  the  crop  that 
follows. 
Questions : 

1.  What  is  the  five-year  rotation  described  above? 

2.  If  one  had  five  20-acre  fields  cropped  to  the  above  5 
year  rotation,  how  many  acres  of  grain  would  he  raise 
each  year  ?     How  many  acres  of  corn  ?     Of  pasture  ? 

3.  In  what  ways  does  the  five  year  rotation  described 
above  aid  in  cleaning  the  land  of  weeds? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  farmer  on  the  above  160-acre  farm  kept  15 
cows,  8  two-year-olds,  10  yearlings  and  12  calves,  how 
many  head  of  cattle  would  he  have  ? 

2.  If  each  cow  required  1  acre  of  pasture  for  the 
summer,  each  two-year-old  %  acre,  and  each  yearling  % 
acre,  how  many  acres  of  pasture  would  be  needed? 

3.  If  each  cow  required,  during  the  winter,  2%  tons  of 
hay,  each  two-year-old  2  tons,  each  yearling  1  ton,  and 
each  calf  i/4  of  a  ton,  how  many  tons  of  hay  would  be 
needed? 

4.  If  the  27  acres  of  rotation  meadow  produced  two 
tons  per  acre,  and  the  12  acres  of  permanent  meadow  pro- 
duced 11/2  tons  per  acre,  how  many  tons  of  hay  would  the 
farm  produce  ? 

FARM   ACCOUNTS. 

Bookkeeping. — One  of  the  first  essentials  of  successful 
farm  management  is  a  set  of  accounts  that  will  show 
which  enterprises  are  paying  and  which  are  not.  To  keep 
a  complete  set  of  books  for  all  the  enterprises  on  a  farm 
requires  considerable  time   and  training,  but  most  any 


158 


AGMCULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


farmer  or  boy  or  girl  can,  with  little  effort,  keep  a  reason- 
ably accurate  account  of  one  or  more  of  the  leading  enter- 
prises on  his  own  farm.  We  hope  our  readers  will  take 
up  some  of  the  problems  presented  in  the  next  few  pages 
and  apply  them  to  their  own  farms.  We  are  sure  they 
will  feel  well  repaid  for  the  time  spent.  We  will  not 
try  to  give  a  complete  system  of  farm  bookkeeping,  as 
too  much  space  and  study  would  be  required,  but  we  do 
wish  to  study  with  our  readers  some  of  the  problems;  of 
farm  management  affecting  a  few  of  the  more  general 


Fig.  66. — Harvesting  Grain.  One  should  be  able  to  answer  the 
following  questions:  How  much  does  it  cost  per  acre  to  harvest 
grain?  To  shock  it?  To  stack  it?  To  thresh  it?  What  is  the 
total  cost  per  acre  to  produce  a  crop  of  grain? 


enterprises  of  the  average  farm,  and  to  show  the  appli- 
cation of  accounts  and  figures  to  farming  as  a  business, 
and  the  value  of  their  use. 

Enterprises. — Some  of  the  main  enterprises  on  the 
general  farm  are :  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  Hogs,  Poul- 
try, Fruit,  Grain,  Hay,  or,  in  short,  any  of  the  various 
classes  of  products  produced.  If  one  keeps  only  a  cash 
account  showing  the  receipts  from  products  sold  and  the 
amount  spent,  while  he  might  make  a  profit  on  the  whole 


FARM   ACCOUNTS.  159 

farm,  he  might  lose  on  sheep,  hogs  or  some  of  the  other 
enterprises,  and  not  know  it.  If  he  had  an  account  with 
each  enterprise,  he  would  know  on  which  he  was  losing 
and  on  which  he  was  making  a  profit,  and  could  plan  his 
future  work  so  as  to  increase  the  profitable  lines  and  de- 
crease or  improve  the  unprofitable  ones. 

The  Farmer  as  a  Merchant. — The  farmer  buys  and 
sells  products  just  as  truly  as  dees  the  merchant.  The 
way  he  buys  most  of  the  products  he  sells  is  somewhat 
complicated;  so  he  seldom  knows,  unless  he  keeps  ac- 
counts, just  how  much  any  particular  thing,  as  a  hog  or 
bushel  of  grain,  has  cost  him.  The  cost  of  a  product  of 
the  field  to  a  farmer  includes  rent  on  land,  seed,  man  and 
horse  labor  in  preparing  the  land,  seeding,  cultivating, 
harvesting,  machinery  cost;  also  any  cash  expenditure,  as 
for  twine,  oil  or  threshing.  The  cost  of  a  live  stock  prod- 
uct includes  labor,  feed,  shelter,  interest  on  investment 
and  depreciation.  It  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  keep  a  fair- 
ly accurate  account  of  some  of  the  leading  enterprises, 
and  it  gives  one  a  much  better  grasp  of  his  business  than 
he  can  get  in  any  other  way. 

Land  Rent. — Land  rent  is  one  of  the  items  of  cost  in 
crop  production  that  must  be  considered.  This  cost  is 
very  evident  if  one  does  not  own  the  land,  but  pays  rent 
for  the  use  of  it.  If  one  owns  land  himself  he  must 
charge  a  fair  rent  per  acre  against  each  crop,  because  he 
expects  his  money  invested  to  be  worth  a  certain  rate 
of  interest.  That  is,  he  could  loan  his  money  at  a  fair 
rate  of  interest  were  it  not  invested  in  the  farm.  If  one 
did  not  consider  rent  as  an  item  of  cost  against  each  crop 
he  might  apparently  make  a  profit  in  his  farming  opera- 
tions while  in  reality  he  was  losing — that  is,  growing 
crops  at  a  loss,  but  making  more  than  wages  on  his  labor 
because  of  the  income  on  his  investment.  If  such  were 
the  case  he  might  be  better  off  to  sell  his  farm  and  loan 
his  money  to  some  one  at  5%  or  6%  interest. 
Questions : 

1.  For  what  reasons  is  it  advisable  for  a  farmer  to 
keep  accounts? 


16C  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

2.  In  what  way  does  a  farmer  buy  the  hogs,  milk,  etc., 
that  he  sells  from  the  farm  ? 

3.  Why  isi  land  rent  one  of  the  items  in  the  cost  of 
production,  even  though  a  man  may  own  his  land? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  farmer  feeds  a  cow  each  day  for  200  days,  25 
pounds  of  hay  worth  $5.00  per  ton  and  6  pounds  of  grain 
worth  $20.00  per  ton,  what  is  the  cost  for  feed  for  the 
200  days? 

2.  If  pasture  for  a  cow  is  worth  $1.00  per  month,  what 
is  the  cosit  of  pasturing  a  cow  165  days? 

3.  If  %  hour  per  day  is  required  to  care  for  a  cow 
during  the  200  days  she  is  kept  in  the  barn,  and  i/4  hour 
per  day  for  the  165  days  she  is  pastured,  how  many 
hours  of  labor  are  required  to  care  for  a  cow  a  year? 
What  is  thisi  labor  worth  at  12c.  per  hour  ? 

4.  What  is  the  total  cost  of  feed  and  labor  for  the 
cow  for  the  year  ?  How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  must 
she  give  in  the  year  to  pay  for  these  items  if  butter-fat 
is  worth  28c.  per  pound  ? 

LIVE    STOCK    ACCOUNTS. 

Making  Work  Interesting. — Nearly  every  farm  boy, 
while  he  is  attending  school,  has  more  or  less  work  with 
the  stock  at  home.  This  work  done  mornings  and  even- 
ings, often  under  unfavorable  conditions,  is  sometimes 
uninteresting  to  say  the  least,  though  it  is  as  valuable 
a  part  of  one's  education  as  are  the  things  one  learns  at 
school.  Keeping  records  with  the  various  classes  of 
stock,  so  one  knows  which  class  is  giving  the  best  returns 
for  feed  and  the  highest  price  per  hour  for  labor,  adds  to 
the  work  an  interest  that  can  be  gained  in  no  other  way. 

In  order  to  know  the  profits  or  losses  of  an  enterprise, 
certain  charges  must  be  made  and  deducted  from  the 
value  of  the  product.  The^main  charges  against  live 
stock  are :  depreciation,  interest  on  investment,  feed, 
labor,  shelter. 

Depreciation  is  the  difference  between  the 
value  of  any  property  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end 


LIVE   STOCK  ACCOUNTS. 


161 


of  the  period  during  which  an  account  is  kept  of  it.  For 
example,  if  one  has  ten  cows  at  the  beginning  of  a  year 
worth  $400,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year  they  are  worth 
less  or  he  has  lost  or  sold  some,  so  that  the  total  value 
of  cows  on  hand  is  but  $350,  there  will  have  been  a  dcr 
preciation  in  value  of  $50,  which  must  be  accounted  for 
in  the  charges  against  the  stock.  Likewise  there  may 
be  a  gain  in  the  value  of  the  stock  for  a  given  period. 
If  so,  it  must  be  credited  to  the  enterprise.  This  loss  or 
gain  is  most  easily  accounted  for  by  taking  an  inventory 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year — that  is,  making  an  estimate 


Fig-.  67. — A  fine  bunch  of  hogs.  The  questions  we  should  be  able 
to  answer  when  we  have  produced  a  lot  of  hogs  are:  How  much 
did  they  cost  per  pound?  How  many  pounds  of  corn  or  other 
feed  did  it  take  per  pound  of  pork,  etc. 


of  the  value  of  the  stock  on  hand  and  charging  the  en- 
terprise with  this  amount,  then  crediting  the  enterprise 
with  the  inventory  value  at  the  close  of  the  year. 

Interest  on  the  Investments  must  also  be  charged 
against  an  enterprise  if  an  accurate  knowledge  of  loss 
or  gain  is  to  be  had,  because  if  the  money  invested  in 
stock  were  loaned  it  would  earn  a  certain  rate  of  interest. 
One  would  not  care  to  invest  money  in  stock  if  he  could 


162 


AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


not  get  as  much  interest  on  it  as  he  could  obtain  for  it 
if  invested  in  some  other  enterprise.  A  very  common 
rate  of  interest  is  6%.  Thus  if  one  had  $400'  invested  in 
live  stock  for  a  year,  one  of  the  charges  against  the  stock 
would  be  an  interest  charge  of  $24,  as  that  is  the  amount 
$400  would  earn  if  loaned  at  6%. 

Feed.— The  value  of 
all  feed  consumed  must 
be  charged  to  the  stock. 
This  is  usually  the  only 
charge  considered,  but 
it  is  evident  that  the 
other  items  mentioned 
are  as  legitimate  charg- 
es. It  seems  at  first 
thought  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  keep  account 
of  the  amount  of  feed 
fed  to  each  cow  or  to 
all  the  cows,  but  very 
little  time  is  required 
to  get  approximately 
the  amount  fed  for  a 
month.  If  one  carefully 
weighs,  for  a  few  days, 
the  hay  and  grain  that 
he  feeds,  he  can  soon 
learn  to  feed  about  the 
desired  amount  without 
weighing,  but  simply  by 
using  the  same  measure 
for  grain  and  giving  about  the  same  sized  forkful  of  hay 
or  the  same  number  of  bundles  of  fodder.  When  on(^ 
knows  about  the  amount  of  feed  fed  per  day,  he  can  get 
the  amount  fed  per  month  by  multiplying  by  the  number 
of  days  in  the  month. 

Labor  or  any  work  done  in  caring  for  any  class  of 
live  stock  or  marketing  the  product  must  be  charged 
against  the  enterprise,  because  if  one  hires  the  labor  he 


Fig-.  68. — Scales  and  a  Convenient 
Case  for  Weighing  and  Sampling 
Milk. 


AN  ACCOUNT  WITH  A  COW.  163 

must  pay  for  it,  or  if  he  does  the  work  himself  he  wants 
wages,  as  there  is  little  satisfaction  in  caring  for  live 
stock  for  nothing.  By  giving  the  matter  a  little  thought 
for  a  few  days,  one  can  determine  about  the  amount  of 
time  required  each  day  to  care  for  any  class  of  live  stock ; 
and  by  multiplying  the  amount  by  the  number  of  days 
in  the  month,  can  get  the  amount  of  work  done  in  the 
month. 

Cost  of  Shelter  is  not  so  easy  to  determine ;  yet  it  is  an 
actual  cost  against  the  live  stock.  An  easy  way  to  get 
the  approximate  cost  for  shelter,  is  tO'  find  out  the  value 
of  the  building  or  part  of  the  building  in  which  the  stock 
is  kept,  then  figure  8  per  cent  of  this  value  as  the  an- 
nual cost  of  shelter.  The  8  per  cent  will  allow  for  inter- 
est, insurance,  taxes,  repairs  and  depreciation. 
Questions : 

1.  "What  will  add  an  interest  to  caring  for  stock? 

2.  What  are  the  main  charges  to  be  made  against  live 
stock  when  keeping  an  account? 

3.  Explain  each  charge. 
Arithmetic : 

1.  On  Jan.  1st  1909  a  barn  is  worth  $1000.00.  On  Jan. 
1st  1910  it  is  worth  $950.00.  How  much  has  it  depreci- 
ated in  value?  How  long  will  it  last  if  it  depreciates 
the  same  amount  each  year. 

2.  If  a  cow  is  worth  $50.00  and  lives  ten  years,  what 
is  her  annual  depreciation? 

3.  If  a  barn  that  shelters  40  head  of  stock  costs  $2,000, 
how  much  is  the  annual  cost  of  shelter  if  one  figures  8% 
on  value  of  barn  ?  How  much  is  the  annual  cost  of  shel- 
ter per  animal? 

AN   ACCOUNT   WITH   A   COW. 

Actual  Figures. — To  simplify  the  account  with  the 
dairy  stock  and  to  illustrate  Avhat  any  boy  may  do  at 
home  with  some  cow  he  is  milking  and  caring  for,  we  will 
use  a  record  which  shows  the  average  results  per  cow  for 
the  year  1908  in  a  herd  of  14  cows  of  which  an  accurate 
record  was  kept. 


164 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


A  Business  Statement  Showing  the  Cost  and  Income  of 
One  Cow  for  the  Year  1908. 

Dr.       Cr. 

Int.  on  investment  at  6%   $  2.40 

Value  of  grain  fed   10.46 

Value  of  roughage  fed    12.29 

Value  of  pasturage   5.00 

Cost  of  labor    23.28 

Cost  of  shelter 3.20 

Miscellaneous  expense 1.50 

Net  profit .43 

Income   for   year 58.56 


$58.56  $58.56 

(Note. — The  43c.  net  profit  was  obtained  by  deducting 
the  sum  of  the  seven  items  of  expense,  $58,13,  from  the 
$58.56  income). 

The  above  is  a  com- 
plete business  state- 
ment except  for  the 
opening  and  closing  in- 
ventory. These  were 
left  out  to  simplify  the 
aecount.  To  put  them 
in,  one  would  simply 
put  in  the  debit  column 
the  value  of  the  cow  at 
the  'beginning  of  the 
year  and  in  the  credit 
column  her  value  at 
the  close  of  the  year. 

Interest    on   Invest- 
ment.— To  get  this  item 
we  simply  assumed  the 
cow  to  be  worth  $40.00 
and  figured  6%  on  this 
amount. 
Feed. — The  cow  was  fed  in  the  stall  for  seven  months, 
during  which  time  she  ate  301  pounds  of  farm  grain  and 
442  pounds  of  mill  feed,  worth  $10.46,  and  1,496  pounds  of 


Fig.  69. — Weighing  hay.  If  one  weighs 
hay  a  few  times  when  feeding  he 
will  soon  be  able  to  tell  approxi- 
mately how  much  he  is  feeding  with- 
out weighing  it  every  time. 


INCOME  OF  ONE  COW. 


165 


hay  and  3,330  pounds  of  fodder,  worth  $12.29.  She  was 
pastured  for  five  months  and  was  charged  for  this  at  the 
rate  of  $1.00  per  month,  which  is  the  ordinary  charge  for 
pasturing. 

Labor. — The  labor  includes  all  time  spent  in  milking 
and  caring  for  the  cow  and  in  marketing  the  product. 
As  the  milk  was  shipped,  it  had  to  be  delivered  to  the  sta- 
tion every  day,  which  required  considerable  time  for  both 
man  and  team,  all  of  which  must  be  accounted  for. 

Miscellaneous     Expenses. — 
^^  '      I    The  item  for  miscellaneous  ex- 

pensa  is  the  actual  wear  and 
tear  on  dairy  equipment,  cost 
of  medicine,  etc. 

Profit.— The  net  profit  ap- 
pears very  low;  but  in  reality 
it  is  not  bad  at  all,  since  every 
bit  of  work  done  and  feed 
fed  was  paid  for  in  full  and  a 
fair  rate  of  interest  has  been 
paid  on  money  invested  in  the 
cow  and  in  the  buildings. 

There  is  an  additional  prof- 
it to  the  farm  by  keeping  live 
stock,  as  most  of  the  fertilizing 
value  of  feeds  fed  is  retained 
on  the  farm  in  the  form  of  ma- 
nure. The  manure  produced  by 
a  cow  in  one  year  is  worth  sev- 
eral dollars  to  the  average 
farm. 
The  cow  also  had  a  calf  which  is  worth  something; 
and,  had  the  butter-fat  been  sold  to  the  creamery  instead 
of  shipping  the  whole  milk,  about  5,000  lbs.  of  skimmed 
milk  would  have  been  available  for  feed ;  which  is  worth, 
at  15c  per  hundred  pounds,  $7.50. 

We  hope  some  of  our  readers  will  begin  at  once  to 
weigh  the  milk  produced  and  feed  consumed  by  some  or 
all  of  their  cows.    Also,  keep  a  record  of  the  amount  of 


Fig-,  70. — Weighing    Feed. 


166  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

time  spent  in  caring  for  them.  It  is  very  interesting  to 
foot  up  such  accounts  each  month  and  to  know  whether 
one  is  making  or  losing  by  keeping  stock. 

Questions : 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms  Inventory, 
Depreciation,  and  Profit? 

2.  How  can  you  determine  the  number  of  hours  of 
labor  required  to  care  for  a  cow  a  year  ? 

3.  What  advantages  are  there  in  keeping  cows  be- 
sides the  profit  shown  in  an  account  similar  to  the  one 
given  above? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  cow  gives  18  lbs.  of  milk  per  day,  how  much 
will  she  give  in  300  days?  How  much  butter-fat  does 
she  give  each  day  if  her  milk  tests  4<^  fat?  How  much 
butter-fat  will  she  give  in  300  days?  How  much  is  the 
butter-fa;t  worth  at  30c  per  pound? 

2.  If  a  cow  is  fed  each  day  4  lbs.  of  corn  worth  56c 
per  bu.  (56  lbs.),  2  lbs.  of  bran  worth  $25.00  per  ton, 
12  lbs.  clover  hay  worth  $5.00  per  ton,  and  10  lbs.  of  fod- 
der corn  worth  $4.00  per  ton,  how  much  does  it  cost 
to  keep  her  one  day?    To  keep  her  200  days? 

3.  How  much  does  it  cost  to  pasture  a  cow  165  days 
at  $1.00  per  month? 

MARKETING    DAIRY    PRODUCTS. 

Item  of  Expense. — Getting  dairy  products  to  market  is 
an  item  often  overlooked  in  considering  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction and  the  profits  in  dairying.  This  item  is  much 
larger  than  one  would  believe  at  first  thought.  It  is, 
however,  a  necessary  item  of  expense,  but  often  a  little 
consideration  and  planning  will  greatly  reduce  the  cost 
and  add  a  corresponding  amount  to  the  profits. 

Making  Butter  on  the  Faxm. — There  are  a  few  who 
cling  to  the  old  method  of  making  butter  on  the  farm, 
and  there  are  probably  places  where  this  is  necessary, 
but  where  it  can  be  avoided  and  the  cream  or  milk  sold 


MARKETING  DAIRY   PRODUCTS. 


167 


at  a  reasonable  price  it  is  preferable  to  do  so.  In  churn- 
ing by  hand,  more  of  the  butter-fat  is  lost  than  when 
cream  is  churned  in  a  large  churn  at  the  creamery.  But- 
ter makers  in  creameries  do  nothing  but  make  butter. 
They  make  a  study  of  it ;  and,  having  better  facilities  than 
are  usually  found  in  the  home,  make  a  better  quality  of 
butter. 

Overrim. — Milk  usually  contains  from  3  per  cent 
to  5  per  cent  butter-fat,  and  cream  from  20  per  cent  to 
40  per  cent  butter-fait.  A  pound  of  butter-fat  will  make 
more  than  a  pound  of  butter,  because  butter  contains 

from  12  to  15  per  cent 
water;  also  some  salt 
and  casein.  This  in- 
crease in  weight  is  call- 
ed by  butter  makers 
the  overrun.  A  good 
butter  maker  with 
modern  creamery 
equipment  can  get  an 
overrun  of  from  18  to 
24  per  cent.  If  he  buys 
100  pounds  of  butter- 
fat  he  can  make  from 
118  to  124  pounds  of 
seldom  that  one  can 
when  churning  a 
butter  on  the  farm,  as  can  a  good  but- 
modern  creamery.  While  one  can  get 
more  pounds  of  butter  by  churning  his  cream  himself 
than  he  had  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  the  cream,  yet  he 
cannot  as  a  rule  get  as  many  pounds  of  butter  as  could 
a  butter  maker  by  churning  the  same  cream  in  a  modem 
creamery.  This  fact,  together  with  the  fact  that  home 
dairy  butter  is  not  quite  so  marketable  as  creamery  but- 
ter, makes  it  the  part  of  wisdom,  on  most  farrns,  to  sell 
the  cream  or  milk  at  the  local  creamery ;  or,  if  no  cream- 
ery is  convenient,  to  ship  either  the  milk  or  the  cream, 
rather  than  to  make  butter  on  the  farm. 


Fig.    71. 


-llome        Manufacture 
Butter. 


of 


butter    from    it. 
get      as      large 
small  amount  of 
ter  maker 


It 
an 


IS    very 
overrun, 


m  a 


168  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Exceptions. — There  are  times  when  it  may  be  wise 
to  make  butter  on  the  farm,  but  at  present  such  condi- 
tions are  exceptional.  In  deciding  which  method  to  fol- 
low one  should  not  overlook  the  fact  that  butter  making 
on  the  farm  usually  falls  to  the  housekeeper;  who,  as 
a  rule,  has  too  much  to  do  without  this  unnecessary  work. 

Selling  Whole  Milk,  or  Cream. — The  majority  of 
farmers  now  separate  their  milk,  keep  the  skimmed  milk 
at  home  for  their  calves  and  pigs,  and  sell  their  cream. 
A  few,  however,  who  live  within  reasonable  shipping  dis- 
tances from  large  cities,  ship  the  whole  milk  to  milk 
dealers  who  peddle  it  out  in  small  quantities  to  the  con- 
sumers. When  farmers  ship  milk  in  this  way  they  usual- 
ly sell  it  by  the  hundred  pounds,  and  there  is  often  con- 
siderable of  a  problem  involved  to  determine  which  is 
more  profitable — ^to  ship  whole  milk  or  to  sell  the  cream. 
A  specific  problem  will  illustrate  how  any  one  must  de- 
cide which  is  the  better  method  to  practice.  A  farmer 
living  three  miles  from  town,  and  the  same  distance  from 
a  creamery,  has  ten  cows,  each  giving  daily  20  pounds 
of  milk  testing  4  per  cent  butter-fat. 

Whole  Milk. — If  this  farmer  ships  whole  milk  to  the 
city,  he  must  deliver  it  every  day,  seven  days  each  week. 
It  will  take  a  man  and  team  two  hours  each  day  to  get 
the  milk  to  the  station.  The  time  of  a  man  and  team 
is  worth  about  30  cents  per  hour.  Thus  the  cost  of  mar- 
keting will  be  60  cents  per  day  or  $4.20  per  week. 

Cream. — If  he  separates  his  milk  and  sells  the  cream 
he  will  need  to  deliver  it  but  three  times  a  week,  which 
at  60  cents  a  trip  will  cost  $1.80.  He  will  have  to  sepa- 
rate 100  pounds  of  milk  and  wash  the  s,eparator  four- 
teen times  during  the  week.  Allowing  half  an  hour 
for  this  it  amounts,  in  a  week,  to  seven  hours.  Man  la- 
bor is  worth  about  15  cents  per  hour,  which  will  make 
the  separating  cost  $1.05.  The  cost  for  interest,  depre- 
ciation and  repair  on  the  separator  will  be  about  25  cents 
per  week.  Thus  the  separating  and  delivering  will  cost 
$3(.10  per  week. 


CO-OPERATION   IN   MARKETING.  169 

In  addition  to  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  marketing,  if 
the  cream  is  sold  in  place  of  the  whole  milk,  this  farmer 
will  hav^e  about  1175  pounds  of  skimmed  milk,  which  at  15 
cents  per  hundred  is  worth  $1.76. 

(Questions: 

1.  What  item  of  expense  is  often  overlooked  in  the 
cost  of  dairy  products? 

2.  Give  at  least  three  reasons  why  it  is  usually  not 
wise  to  make  butter  at  home. 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  creamery  man's 
term  ''the  overrun?" 

4.  Compare  the  items  of  expense  in  selling  whole 
milk  with  selling  cream. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  butter  maker  gets  an  overrun  of  20%,  how 
much  butter  will  he  make  from  986  lbs.  of  cream? 

2.  If  a  man  has  10  cows,  each  giving  20  lbs.  of  milk 
per  day,  how  many  pounds  of  milk  will  he  get  per  day? 
How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  will  he  get  if  there  are 
4  lbs.  of  fat  in  each  100  lbs.  of  milk? 

3.  What  isl  the  value  of  1175  lbs.  of  skim  milk  at 
15c  per  hundred  pounds? 

CO-OPERATION    IN    MARKETING. 

Co-operation  Reduces  Cost. — In  the  preceding  pages 
we  found  that  the  farmer  who  hauled  his  cream  to  the 
creamery  three  times  each  week  spent  6  hours  of  time  for 
himself  and  team ;  which,  at  30  cents  per  hour,  costs  him 
$1.80  per  week  or  $93.60  per  year,  simply  for  marketing 
the  cream  from  ten  cows,  each  giving  daily  20  pounds  of 
milk  testing  40%  fat.  This  is  certainly  quite  an  item,  es- 
pecially at  a  time  when  farm  help  is  as  scarce  as  it  is  at 
present. 

If  three  such  farmers  would  co-operate  in  hauling 
cream,  so  each  would  haul  but  one  day  each  week,  the  cost 
would  be  but  very  little  more  than  one  third  as  much 
as  when  each  markets  his  own  cream.    This  would  amount 


170 


AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


to  a  saving  each  year  of  about  $60.00'  per  farm  or  $6.00 
per  cow. 

We  have  found  (page  168)  that  it  cost  a  farmer,  with 
ten  cows,  $4.20  per  week  or  $218.40  per  year  to  market 
whole  milk,  because  he  was  obliged  to  go  to  market 
every  day.  If  three  such  farmers,  living  near  each  other, 
were  to  co-operate  in  marketing  their  milk,  about  2-3  of 
this  cost,  or  $155.00,  would  be  saved  to  each  farm ;  which 
is  over  $15  per  cow  per  year.  An  increased  profit  of 
$15.00  per  cow  is  sufficient  to  make  it  worth  considera^ 
tion. 

Creamery  Company  Hauls  Cream.— It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  instead  of  each  farmer  hauling  milk  or  cream 
to  a  creamery,  the  creamery  company  employ  teams 
to  haul  the  cream  or  milk  from  all  the  farms.     It  would 

certainly  seem  that 
there  might  be  a  very 
great  saving  realized 
were  this  suggestion 
followed.  One  man  and 
team  thus  employed 
could  haul  all  of  the 
cream  from  20  to  60 
farms,  depending  on  the 
conditions  of  roads,  dis- 
tance to  haul  and  size 
of  herds. 


Fig.    72. 


-Marketing      Milk 
Creamery. 


at      the 


Questions. — We  wish  each  of  our  readers  might  spend 
a  few  moments  figuring  on  these  problems  as»  they  might 
apply  in  his  particular  locality.  If  you  can  answer  the 
following  questions  you  can  figure  the  problems  easily. 

How  many  times  per  week  do  you  deliver  milk  or 
cream  ? 

How  much  time,  on  the  average,  is  required  to  make 
the  delivery? 

How  many  hours  of  time  will  a  man  spend  in  a  year 
to  deliver  your  milk  or  cream?  What  is  the  total  cost 
of  this  labor  at  15  cents  per  hour? 


CO-OPERATION  IN  MARKETING.  171 

How  many  hours  of  horse  labor  will  be  required  in 
a  year  to  deliver  your  milk  or  cream  ?  What  is  the  total 
cost  of  this  labor  at  8  cents  per  hour  per  horse  ? 

The  above  figures  will  enable  you  to  find  the  total 
cost  of  marketing  the  product  of  your  dairy  when  you 
do  it  by  yourself.  It  will  be  worth  while  now  to  figure, 
in  the  same  manner,  what  it  wguld  cost  you  were  you 
to  exchange  with  two  or  three  of  your  neighbors,  so  you 
will  have  to  go  but  eyery  third  or  fourth  time. 

Still  another  valuable  problem  will  be  to  find  out 
how  many  farms  could  be  reached  by  one  team  circling 
around  so  as  to  reach  the  greatest  possible  number  of 
farms  and  get  back  to  the  creamery  by  traveling  from 
10  to  14  miles. 

To  make  such  a  trip  one  half  day 's  time  for  man  and 
team  would  be  required,  at  a  cost  of  $1.50'  to  $2.00.    Fig- 
ure whether  or  not  this  would  be  a  saving  over  the  com- 
mon practice  of  each  delivering  his  own  cream. 
Questions : 

1.  In  what  manner  are  the  dairy  products  of  your 
farm  marketed? 

2.  Are  there  two  or  more  of  your  neighbors  living 
near  your  place,  so  you  might  co-operate  with  them  in 
hauling  your  milk  or  cream  to  the  creamery  or  to  the 
station  ? 

3.  Would  it  not  be  practical  for  the  creamery  com- 
pany to  employ  one  or  more  teams  to  collect  milk  or 
cream,  instead  of  each  farmer  trying  to  deliver  it  him- 
self? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  100  pounds  of  milk  were  run  through  a 
separator  and  4  pounds  of  butter-fat  taken  out,  and 
Avith  the  butter-fat  12  pounds  of  milk,  how  many  pounds 
of  skimmed  milk  would  be  left?  (Note.  4  pounds  of 
butter-fat  in  12  pounds  of  milk  would  make  16  pounds 
of  cream  testing  25  per  cent  fat,  which  is  about  the  av- 
erage for  cream.) 

2.  If  the  four  pounds  of  butter-fat  taken  from  the 
100  pounds  of  milk  were  sold  for  33  cents  per  pound, 


172 


AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


and  the  skimmed  milk  were  worth  15  cents  per  hundred, 
what  would  be  the  income  from  the  100  pounds  of  milk? 
3.  Assuming  that  it  costs  10  cents  per  100  pounds 
morel  to  market  whole  milk  than  to  separate  and  market 
cream,  at  what  price  per  hundred  pounds  must  4%  milk 
be  sold  to  be  as  profitable  as  to  sell  the  cream  at  33  cents 
per  pound  for  butter'-fat? 


FENCING. 

Kinds  of  Fences. — Fences  of  some  description  are 
found  on  nearly  every  farm.    Sometimes  these  fences  are 

in  such  poor  condition 
that  they  are  very  lit- 
tle improvement  to  a 
farm,  while  on  other 
farms  they  are  straight, 
well  built,  well  kept 
and  a  very  great  addi- 
tion to  the  farm  both  in 
usefulness  and  in  ap- 
pearance. 

Fences  are  used  to 
keep  stock  either  in  or 
out  of  fields,  and  differ- 
ent kinds  of  stock  re- 
quire different  kinds  of 
fences.  Formerly  fences  were  made  of  rails,  but  late 
years  timber  is  more  scarce  and  other  fencing  material  is 
being  used.  Barbed  wire  and  woven  wire  are  now  com- 
paratively cheap,  easily  put  up,  and  so  ett'ective  in  enclos- 
ing stock  that  practically  all  fencing  is  of  this  material, 
even  in  timbered  sections  where  rails  are  plentiful. 

Fence  Posts. — There  are  a  great  number  of  fence  posts 
used  every  year,  and,  as  timber  becomes  scarce,  posts  be- 
come more  and  more  expensive.  There  are  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  timber  used  for  fence  posts,  and  they 
vary  in  value  according  to  their  durability.  Some  kinds 
of  posts  will  last  from  ten  to  twenty  years  before  they 
rot,  while  other  kinds  will  become  useless  in  three  or 


Fig.   73. — A     poorly  braced     corner 

post   from    vvliich  it    is    impossible 

to    stretch    wires  and    have    them 
remain  tight. 


FENCING.  173 

four  years.  As  a  rule,  posts  that  last  well  are  made  of 
slow-growing  timber,  such  as  oak  or  cedkr,  while  quick- 
growing  timber,  such  as  willow  and  cottonwood,  rots  very 
quickly  when  placed  in  the  soil. 

Posts  deteriorate  when  set  in  the  ground,  by  rotting. 
They  usually  rot  off  just  below  the.  surface  of  the  ground, 
because  here  the  soil  keeps  them  moist  and  the  air  gets 
in  from  the  surface,  thus  making  conditions  favorable 
for  rotting.  The  top  of  the  post  does  not  rot,  as  it  dries 
off  too  quickly,  and  the  bottom  of  the  post  does  not  rot, 
because  the  soil  keeps  the  air  away  from  it. 


Fig-.   74. — A  well  braced  corner  post  that  will  always  remain   per- 
pendicular and  hold  the  wire  tight. 

Cement  Posts. — Cement  is  now  used  for  making  posts, 
by  mixing  it  with  sand  and  water,  then  tamping  it  into 
moulds  of  the  proper  shape.  Such  posts  are  very  service- 
able and  get  better  the  longer  they  stand.  The  only 
way  in  which  they  are  injured  is  by  breaking  them.  To 
prevent^  this,  strips  of  wire  are  usually  put  inside  of  the 
posts  as  the  mortar  is  being  put  into  the  moulds.  Ce- 
ment posts  are  not  in  general  use,  as  few  people  have 
learned  to  make  them.  The  first  cost  of  cement  posts 
is  higher  than  for  wooden  posts.  They  are  heavy  to 
handle   and  some  little  difficulty  is  found  in  fastening 


174  AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

the  wire  to  them.  But  considering  their  durability  they 
are  not  expensive  and  will  probably  be  used  to  a  great 
extent  as  people  learn  more  about  them. 

A  process  has  been  discovered  by  which  wooden  posts 
may  be  treated  with  creosote  and  thus  made  to  last  two 
or  three  times  as  long  as  when  untreated.  This  process 
is  to  dip  the  posts  (or  the  part  that  is  to  go  into  thie 
ground)  in  a  vat  of  hot  creosote.  The  creosote  soaks 
into  the  wood  and  keeps  them  from  rotting. 

Investment  in  Fences. — Fencing  is  done  entirely  for 
live  stock,  hence  the  cost  should  be  charged  against  them. 
Fencing  intelligently  done  offers  a  good  investment,  but 
sometimes  fences  are  built  when  they  should  not  be.  Un- 
less there  is  sufficient  live  stock  on  the  farm  to  make 
good  use  of  fences,  and  unless  the  live  stock  are  of  such 
quality  as  to  yield  a  profit  from  good  feed,  fences  are 
not  a  profitable  investment. 

The  larger  the  fields  fenced,  the  smaller  the  amount 
of  fencing  required  per  acre,  hence  it  costs  less  for  fenc- 
ing if  one  has  enough  cattle  to  use  a  large  pasture  than 
when  one  has  only  a  few  head  that  can  use  only  a  small 
amount  of  pasture.    Figure  this  out  for  yourself. 

Investing  money  in  fences  is  different  from  investing 
it  in  land,  because  fences  deteriorate  each  year  and  after 
ten  or  twelve  years  must  be  replaced.  If  one  invests  $10 
in  land,  it  is  probable  the  land  will  always  be  Avorth  $10 
or  more,  and  the  only  cost  each  year  is  the  interest  on  the 
investment.  If  one  invests  $10  in  fences,  the  cost  of  the 
fence  each  year  is  interest  on  the  investment  and  what- 
ever depreciation  there  may  be.  If  the  fence  lasts  10 
years,  it  is  worth  $1  less  each  year.  Thus  the  fence  must 
earn  about  $1.60  per  year  to  pay  its  cost,  while  the  land 
must  earn  but  60c  per  year. 

Questions : 

1.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  fences  ? 

2.  Of  what  are  they  usually  made  now  ? 

3.  Upon  what  does  the  value  of  fence  posts  depend? 

4.  By  what  process  are  wooden  posts  made  more  du- 
rable ? 


BUILDING  FENCES.  175 

5.  Why  must  an  investment  in  fences  be  considered 
differently  from  an  investment  in  land? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  40  rods  wide 
X  120  rods  long?  How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  re- 
quired to  enclose  it?  How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  re- 
quired per  acre  ? 

2.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  80  rods  square  ? 
How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it? 
How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  per  acre? 

3.  H  fencing  costs  25  cts.  per  rod  and  lasts  ten  years, 
what  is  the  annual  cost  per  rod?  (Figure  6%  interest 
on  25  cts.  and  add  to  it  1-10  of  the  cost  of  the  fence.) 
How  much  is  the  annual  cost  per  acre  of  such  a  fence 
if  10  2-3  rods  are  required  to  enclose  an  acre? 

BUILDING   FENCES. 

Good  Workmanship. — In  building  fences,  like  most 
other  kinds  of  work,  a  man  can  show  whether  or  not  he 
is  a  good  workman.  If  one  sees  straight,  well  built  and 
well  kept  fences  on  a  farm,  he  expects,  and  is  very  like- 
ly to  find,  other  things  on  that  farm  orderly  and  proper- 
ly done.  A  fence  often  remains  in  place  for  many  years. 
If  it  is  crooked,  it  is  an  eyesore  all  those  years.  If  it 
is  straight  and  well  kept,  it  is  a  constant  source  of  sat- 
isfaction to  the  owner  and  to  all  who  see  it. 

Comer  Posts. — ^Bajrbed  wire  fences  have  been  the 
cause  of  so  much  injury  to  animals  that  many  people 
are  strongly  opposed  to  them.  The  greatest  cause  of 
injury  to  live  stock  is  slack  wires.  These  are  not  found 
where  the  wires  have  been  properly  stretched  when  the 
fence  was  built.  In  order  to  stretch  wire  tight  it  is  nec- 
essary to  have  the  corner  posts  set  and  braced  firmly,  so 
they  cannot  give  and  thus  allow  the  wire  to  slacken. 
AVith  comer  posts  set  as  in  Fig.  73,  it  is  impossible  to 
keep  the  wire  tight.  But  when  they  are  set  and  braced 
as  in  Fig.  74,  they  will  always  remain  firm   and   keep 


176 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


the  wire  tight.  (Observe  the  fences  in  yonr  neighbor- 
hood and  make  note  of  those  that  have  well  braced 
corners.) 

Setting  Posts. — ^Posts  are  usually  set  by  digging  holes 
with  a  post  auger  or  digger,  setting  in  the  posts  and  tamp- 
ing the  dirt  firmly  about  them.  It  is  especially  important 
to  tamp  the  dirt  very  firm  about  the  bottom  of  the  post 
and  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  these  are  the 
two  places  on  which  the  strain  comes.  Corner  posts  oft- 
en need  short  pieces',  of  plank  spiked  on  them  near  the 
bottom,  to  keep  the  strain  of  the  wire  from  pulling  them 
out  of  the  ground.    See  Fig.  75. 

Woven  Wire. — ^Woven  wire  makes  a  much  more  de- 
sirable fence  than  barbed  wire,  as  there  is  no  danger  of 

animals  being  injured  in 
it  and  it  will  serve  for 
hogs  and  sheep  as  well 
as  for  cattle  and  horses. 
It  is  considerably  more 
expensive  than  barbed 
wire,  especially  if  only 
cattle  are  to  be  enclosed. 
Stretching  Wire. — If 
posts  are  firmly 
set,  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  stretch  either  barbed  or  woven  wire.  The  wire 
is  fastened  firmly  to  the  post  at  one  end  of  the  line,  then 
strung  out  and  stretched.  A  great  deal  of  time  can  be 
saved  by  arranging  to  reel  out  two  wires  at  once.  To  do 
this,  put  two  spools  of  wire  side  by  side  on  a  rod  or  crow- 
bar in  rear  end  of  the  wagon,  fasten  the  two  wires  and 
drive  ahead,  the  same  as  when  stretching  one  wire.  Al- 
ways stretch  the  top  wire  first,  as  you  thus  avoid  tangling 
when  the  other  wires  are  stretched. 

There  are  several  good  wire  stretchers  on  the  market. 
If  one  has  no  other  means  handy,  barbed  wire  can  be 
well  stretched  by  bracing  a  wagon,  blocking  up  one  hind 
wheel  and  winding  the  wire  about  the  hub  by  turning  the 


Fig".   75. — A   corner    post    braced    one 
way  and  anchored  so  the  strain  of 
the   wires    will   not   pull    it   out   of    corner 
the  ground. 


BUILDING  FENCES.  177 

wheel   by   hand.    A   stretcher   especially   made   for  the 
purpose  is  necessary  for  stretching  woven  wire. 

Cost  of  Fencing". — Any  farmer  should  be  able  to  tell 
approximately  how  much  it  costs  to  build  any  of  the 
common  fences  on  his  farm.  It  is  the  annual  cost  per 
acre  that  is  important.  To  find  this,  one  must  first  take 
into  consideration  the  number *^  of  rods  of  fencing  re- 
quired to  enclose  an  acre.  This,  of  course,  varies  with 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  fields.  The  cost  of  posts  and 
wire  is  known,  because  they  are  usually  purchased.  If 
posts  are  cut  on  the  farm,  the  cost  of  getting  them  out 
will  represent  their  cost.  Labor  cost  in  setting  posts  and 
stretching  wire  can  be  found  by  experience  or  by  ask- 
ing others  who  have  built  fences  under  similar  condi- 
tions. When  one  knows  the  total  cost  per  rod  for  a  cer- 
tain fence,  and  the  number  of  rods  required  to  enclose 
an  acre,  he  can  tell  the  total  cost  per  acre. 

Questions : 

1.  For  what  reasons  should  corner  posts  be  well 
braced? 

2.  Describe  an  easy  method  of  stretching  wire. 

3.  In  what  way  may  one  determine  the  cost  per  rod 
of  fencing  ? 

4.  If  one  knows  the  cost  per  rod,  how  can  he  tell 
the  annual  cost  per  rod?    Per  acre? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  posts  are  required  to  build  80  rods 
of  fence,  posts  II/2  rods  apart?  What  are  they  worth  at 
12c  per  post  ?    What  is  the  cost  per  rod  for  posts  ? 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  barbed  wire  are  required 
to  build  80  rods  of  3  wire  fence  ?  (A  single  barbed  wire 
1  rod  long  weighs  about  1  pound.)  What  is  the  cost  at 
3c  per  pound?  What  is  the  cost  of  such  a  fence  per  rod 
for  wire? 

3.  A  man  can  set  50  posts  in  10  hours.  How  long 
will  it  take  him  to  set  the  posts  in  80  rods  of  fence,  if 


178  AGRICULTURE    FOR  YOUNG   FOLKS. 

posts  are  1^  rods  apart?    What  will  it  cost  if  his  time 
is  worth  14c  per  hour?     What  is  the  cost  per  rod? 

4.  Two  men  and  a  team  (2  horses)  can  string,  stretch 
and  staple  80  rods  of  fence  (3  barbed  wires)  in  5  hours. 
What  will  it  cost  if  a  man's  time  is  worth  14c  per  hour 
and  a  horse's  time  is  worth  8c  per  hour?  What  will  it 
cost  per  rod? 

5.  What,  then,  is  the  total  cost  per  rod  to  build  a 
fence  as  above?  (Include  posts,  setting  of  posts,  wire 
and  stretching  of  wire,  as  found  in  above  examples.) 


CHAPTER  IX. 
LIVE  STOCK. 


CARE  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

Chores. — Farm  boys  are,  a^  a  rule,  occupied  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  time,  mornings  and  evenings, 
earing  for  the  stock.  As  the  profits  derived  from  the 
live  stock  depend  to  a  great  extent  on  the  care  they 
receive,  it  is  certainly  worth  while  to  spend  a  little  time 
considering  how  the  "chores"  may  be  done  more  quickly, 
more  easily  and  better. 

The  amount  of  live  stock  kept  on  the  average  farm 
is  bound  to  increase  as  more  intensive  systems  of  farm- 


^55!!!^T=1 


EffiMiiiinn 


^t- 


I  f-H¥i-fffm  ^  ^.« 


Fig.   76. — A  well  arranged  barn   in  which  the   "chores"   may  be  done 
in  a  minimum  amount  of  time. 

ing  become  necessary.  This  makes  the  proper  care  and 
management  of  live  stock  a  matter  of  increasing  im- 
portance. 

Be  Systematic. — System  in  doing  the  chores  is  fully 
as  effective  as  system  in  studying.  A  carefully  thought 
out  plan  that  will  enable  one  to  get  a  certain  amount 
of  work  done  with  the  fewest  steps  and  least  possible 


180  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

delay,  will  very  often  change  a  tedious  and  "unpleasant 
chore  time  of  an  hour  into  a  half  hour  pleasant  pastime. 
To  lead  four  or  six  horses  out  to  water,  and  then  clean  the 
stable  with  the  horses  in  their  stall,  requires  much  more 
time  than  is  necessary  if  the  yards  and  the  watering 
trough  are  so  arranged  that  the  horses  can  be  turned 
out  to  get  a  drink  by  themlselves,  and  the  stable  cleaned 
while  they  are  out.  If  horses  are  turned  out  to  drink  be- 
fore they  are  fed  their  grain,  as  they  should  be,  they  will, 
as  a  rule,  return  to  the  barn  promptly.  If  you  are  not 
caring  for  your  horses  in  this  manner,  try  it  and  notice  the 
saving  of  time.  Or  if  you  are  doing  it,  take  account  of 
the  time  it  takes  you  to  care  for  your  horses,  and  compare 
notes  with  some  one  of  your  neighbors  who  is  still  lead- 
ing his  horses  out  to  water. 

Value  of  Time. — Many  men  who  work  in  factories  and 
at  other  occupations  are  paid  by  the  hour  on  the  basis 
of  the  amount  of  work  they  can  do,  and  every  minute 
of  their  time  must  be  made  to  count.  Such  rules  are  not 
possible  on  a  farm,  but  a  young  man  who  expects  to 
farm  can  and  should  make  himself  just  as  proficient  as 
possible.  Not  with  the  idea  of  learning  to  do  twice  as 
much  in  a  day  as  an  ordinary  man  can  do,  but  to  so 
direct  his  efforts!  and  utilize  his  time  as  to  be  able  to  do 
a  good  day's  work  as  easily  and  in  as  short  a  time  as 
is  consistent  with  good  work. 

Some  men  have  a  system  of  harnessing  and  hitching 
a  team,  and  can  do  it  better  and  in  much  less  time  than 
can  the  man  who  has  no  system  and  consequently  does 
it  in  a  different  way  each  time. 

Milking  ten  or  twelve  cows  twice  each  day  is  a  com^ 
paratively  easy  task  for  a  man  who  can  milk  them  in 
an  hour,  while  to  milk  the  same  cows  would  be  almost 
drudgery  to  the  man  who  can  milk  but  five  or  six 
in  an  hour.  Men  can  make  themselves  very  proficient, 
and  learn  to  do  things  rapidly  and  well,  by  application 
and  practice.  This  is  shown  in  corn  husking.  Twenty- 
five  bushels  of  corn  is  a  fair  day's  husking  for  a  begin- 
ner, but  many  men  by  practice   get  so  they  can  husk 


CARE  OF  LIVE  STOCK.  181 

from  sixty  to  over  one  hundred  bushels  in  a  day.  Time 
is  much  better  spent  in  wholesome  recreation  than  in 
dallying. 

Make  Animals  Comfortable. — One  of  the  first  essen- 
tials in  caring  for  animals  is  to  make  them  comfortable. 
Hogs  cannot  fatten,  hens  cannot  lay,  cows  cannot  give 
a  good  flow  of  milk  and  horses,  cannot  continue  to  do  a 
good  full  day's  work,  unless  they  are  made  comfortable. 
Every  time  an  animal  is  made  uncomfortable,  either  by 
being  left  hungry,  thirsty  or  cold,  by  lying  on  a  hard  bed 
or  by  being  dogged  or  pounded,  the  owner  loses  money 
by  getting  less  returns  from  the  animal. 


Fig.  77. — Hereford  calves  out  for  exercise  in  a  protected  yard.  Stock 
should  be  left  out  in  winter  only  so  long  as  they  will  be  com- 
fortable. 

Exercise. — All  animals  need  some  exercise,  but  milch 
cows  should  not  be  left  outside  to  shiver  in  the  cold.  One 
practical  dairyman  says,  ''Leave  the  cows  out  no  longer 
than  you  care  to  stand  out  in  the  same  place  with  no 
overcoat  on  and  nothing  to  do."  If  one  folloAvs  this  rule, 
cows  will  be  left  out  but  a  shortj  time  in  the  cold  or  wet 
weather.  Keep  the  cows  in  the  barn  most  of  the  time 
during  the  winter,  and  give  them  a  good  bed  and  plenty 
to  eat  and  drink. 

Warm  Water  for  Cows. — Our  best  dairymen  find  that 
it  pays  to  take  the  chill  off  of  water  for  the  cows.  A  very 
little  fuel  in  a  tank  heater  will  take  off  the  chill  of  the 


182  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

water.     If  it  is  not  warmed  in  this  way  the  expensive 
feed  that  the  cow  eats  will  be  used  to  warm  the  water. 
Besides,  on  a  cold  day  a  cow  will  not  drink  as  much  ice- 
cold  water  as  her  system  requires. 
Qjuestions : 

1.  Why  should  we  plan  to  "save  time?" 

2.  What  is  the  most  important  thing  in  caring  for 
animals  ? 

3.  How  long  should  cows  be  left  out  on  cold  days  ? 

4.  Give  two  reasons  for  warming  water  for  cows. 
Arithmetic : 

1.  A  man  by  having  a  handy  barn  may  save  20  min- 
utes per  day  in  doing  chores.  How  many  hours  may  he 
save  in  a  year?  How  much  is  this  time  worth  at  14c 
per  hour? 

2.  A  cow  drinks  90  lbs.  of  water  per  day.  It  takes  the 
energy  generated  by  lj4  lbs.  of  oats  to  warm  90  lbs.  of 
water  from  32  degrees  to  the  temperature  of  the  cow's 
body.  How  much  does  it  cost  to  warm  this  water  if  oats 
are  worth  35c  per  bu.  ? 

It  takes  the  available  energy  generated  by  burning  li/o 
lbs.  of  dry  oak  wood  to  raise  the  temperature  of  90  lbs. 
of  water  from  32°  F  to  103°  F.  How  much  does  it  cost  if 
a  cord  of  dry  oak  wood,  weighing  3,800  lbs.,  costs  $5.00 
per  cord? 

SHELTER  FOR  LIVE  STOCK. 

Kind  of  Shelter. — To  make  live  stock  comfortable  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada, 
good  shelter  must  be  provided.  Expensive  shelter  is  not 
necessary,  but  the  object  sought  should  be  a  barn  that 
will  keep  the  animals  warm,  be  healthful,  and  so  arrang- 
ed that  stock  can  be  easily  and  quickly  cared  for.  Usual- 
ly the  buildings  at  hand,  if  not  already  satisfactory,  can 
be  made  very  serviceable  by  a  little  effort  and  planning. 

Buildings  Should  Be  Warm. — Buildings  should  be  so 
constructed  as  to  keep  the  animals  warm.  If  the  animals 
are  not  kept  warm  by  shelter  some  of  the  food  they  eat 
will  be  used  to  warm  thorn,  and  it  is  cheaper  to  provide 
good  shelter.     Besides,  if  animals   are  not  comfortable, 


SHELTER   FOR  LIVE   STOCK. 


183 


they  cannot  do  well.  This  is  especially  true  of  milch 
cows  and  young  stock.  Fattening  steers  and  sheep  do 
not  require  very  warm  quarters  so  long  as  they  are  pro- 
tected from  the  storms  and  the  wind. 

Light. — Plenty  of  windows  should  be  provided,  so  the 
sunlight  can  reach  just  as  much  of  the  interior  of  the 
building  as  possible.  Sunlight  is  a  deadly  enemy  of  bac- 
teria and  disease  germs.  There  is  no  better  disinfectant 
than  sunlight,  and  it  is  so  cheap  that  every  building  should 
be  amply  supplied.  Tuberculosis  is  very  common  among 
domestic  animals,  and  it  is  generally  believed  that  it  may 
be  transmitted  from  animals  to  man,  especially  in  milk. 
So  it  is  not  alone  for  the  comfort  of  the  animals  and  the 
profit  we  derive,  that  we  provide  healthful  quarters,  but 
to  guard  the  health  of  the  family  as  well. 

Ventilation. — By  good  ventil- 
ation we  mean  such,  a  system 
as  will  remove  the  foul  air  from 
the  stable.  Leaving  a  door  or  a 
window  open  is  not  good  ventil- 
ation, as  it  causes  a  draught  and 
lets  out  the  warm  air.  A  better 
way  is  to  have  one  or  more  flues 
built  in  the  barn,  that  will  carry 
the  foul  air  out.  Warm  air  is 
lighter  than  cold  air,  hence  it 
rises.  A  stable  is  warmer  near 
the  ceiling,  if  the  ceiling  is 
tight,  than  near  the  floor.  Hence 
the  ventilator  flue  should  open 
near  the  floor  so  as  not  to  take 
out  the  warm  air.  The  carbon 
dioxide  exhaled  by  animals 
is  heavier  than  air,  hence  it 
settles  to  the  floor  and  will  be  taken  out  by  such  a  ventil- 
ator. Air  should  be  let  into  the  stable  near  the  ceiling, 
whence  it  will  gradually  settle  and  become  partially  warm- 
ed before  it  reaches  the  animals.  The  illustration  Fig. 
78,  shows  how  a  ventilator  should  work.       Notice  the 


Fig.  78.— A  good  system  of 
ventilation  for  a  barn. 
Fresh  air  comes  in  near 
the  ceiling.  Foul  air  is 
taken  out  from  near  the 
floor.     After    King. 


184  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

bams  in  the  neighborhood  and  make  a  note  of  the  number 
af  windows  and  ventilators.  How  is  your  barn  lighted 
and  ventilated? 

Conveniences. — Since  chores  must  be  done  so  many- 
times  each  year,  just  a  few  minutes  lost  each  time  they 
are  done  amounts  to  many  hours  in  a  year,  probably  sev- 
eral days;  hence  it  is  well  to  plan  to  have  the  barns 
handy.  Feed,  both  hay  and  grain,  should  be  stored  where 
it  can  be  easily  gotten  to  the  feeding  alleys,  and  the  al- 
leys should  be  sufficiently  large  so  one  can  work  in  them 
conveniently.  Cleaning  the  stables  is  probably  the  heavi- 
est part  of  the  chores,  and  should  be  made  as  easy  as 
possible.  If  the  stalls  are  so  arranged  that  a  team  can 
be  driven  through  the  barn  and  the  manure  loaded  in 
a  spreader,  wagon  or  sled,  and  hauled  directly  to  the 
field,  it  will  be  much  easier  than  where  it  is  necessary 
to  throw  it  to  one  end  or  side  of  the  bam,  then  throw 
it  out  of  a  door  or  a  window  and  pitch  it  into  a  wagon 
outside.  This  last  method  is  common  on  many  farms, 
and  results  in  a  great  loss  of  labor  and  time,  besides  a 
loss  in  the  value  of  the  manure.  The  sooner  manure  can 
be  put  onto  the  field  after  it  is  taken  from  the  stable  the 
better.  A  manure  pile  laying  under  the  eaves  of  a  barn 
for  a  few  months  may  lose  one-half  of  its  value.  If  a 
new  barn  is  being  built,  or  the  old  one  changed,  a  great 
deal  of  thought  and  study  should  be  put  on  it  to  make  it 
as  convenient  as  possible.  A  day  spent  in  planning  the 
alleys,  stalls,  etc.,  for  convenience,  may  save  many  day's 
work  each  year. 

Cost. — ^A  feature  that  must  not  be  overlooked  is  the 
cost  of  a  barn.  A  bam  is  built  to  shelter  stock,  and 
stock  is  kept  for  profit.  When  a  barn  is  built,  it  must 
earn  for  the  farmer  enough  each  year  to  pay  interest 
on  the  investment,  cost  of  insurance,  taxes,  repairs  and 
yearly  depreciation.  (If  a  barn  costs  $1,000  and  lasts  25 
years,  the  yearly  depreciation  is  $40.)  Good  barns  are 
desirable ;  but  sometimes  bams  are  built  on  farms  where 
live  stock  is  so  poorly  managed  that  it  fails  to  bring  in 
even  the  yearly  cost  of  the  building;    and  in  such  cases 


TESTING  MILK.  185 

the  investment  results  in  a  loss.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  yearly  cost  of  shelter  is  not  so  high  as  to  take 
all  profit  from  the  animals  kept.  By  carefully  figuring" 
out  the  problems  given  above,  one  will  get  an  idea  of 
how  to  study  such  problems. 
Questions : 

1.  TVhy  should  buildings  be  warm?  Why  light? 
"Why  well  ventilated  ? 

2.  Why  should  buildings  be  made  convenient? 

3.  Is  there  any  danger  of  investing  too  much  money 
in  farm  buildings? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  (a)  A  barn  costs  $1,000  and  will  last  25  years. 
What  is  the  average  yearly  depreciation  in  the  value  of 
the  barn?     (1-25  of  $1,000.) 

(b)  How  much  is  the  interest  charge  per  year  on 
$1,000  at  4  per  cent? 

(c)  How  much  is  the  yearly  cost  of  insurance  on  the 
barn  at  50c  per  $100? 

(d)  Such  a  barn  will  cost  about  $10  per  year  for  re- 
pairs.    What  is  the  total  yearly  cost  of  the  barn  ? 

(Note :  It  is  the  sum  of  the  yearly  depreciation,  inter- 
est, insurance  and  repair  charges.) 

2.  If  such  a  barn  will  shelter  20  head  of  stock,  what 
will  be  the  yearly  cost  per  head  for  shelter  ? 

3.  In  a  similar  manner  figure  the  yearly  cost  per 
head  for  shelter  in  a  $4,000  barn  that  will  shelter  40  head 
of  stock.  (Note:  Find  depreciation,  interest,  insurance 
and  repairs  at  same  rate  as  in  example  No.  1.) 

TESTING    MILK. 

Babcock  Test. — ^How  many  of  our  readers  know  of 
Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  and  that  he  invented  the  Babcock 
test  ?  The  Babcock  Test  is  one  of  the  great  inventions  of 
the  age,  and  has  done  a  great  deal  for  the  dairy  industry. 
Before  this  invention  there  was  no  way  to  tell  the  differ- 
ent grades  of  milk.  It  was  known  that  some  cows  gave 
richer  milk  than  others,  but  tlie  only  way  to  tell  the 


186  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

amount  of  butter-fat  in  a  given  sample  was  to  raise  the 
cream  and  make  it  into  butter.  When  all  the  butter  was 
made  on  the  home  farms,  it  was  not  so  necessary  to  know 
the  quality  of  milk;  but  when  creameries  became  com- 
mon, and  milk  was  hauled  from  different  farms  to  a 
creamery,  it  became  very  important  to  know  how  much 


Fig.  79. — A  High  Type  Dairy  Cow.  Her  value  is  best  told  by  her 
record  in  the  herd,  which  can  be  told  only  by  weighing  and  test- 
ing her  milk. 

butter-fat  each  sample  contained,  so  it  could  be  paid  for 
in  proportion  to  its  value. 

Dr.  Babcock  realized  this  need,  and,  after  years  of 
effort,  invented  a  test  by  which  any  sample  of  milk  may 
be  tested  in  a  very  short  time  and  its  per  cent  of  butter- 
fat  determined.  This  makes  it  possible  for  every  farm- 
er, who  hauls  milk  to  a  creamery,  to  get  paid  for  it  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of  butter-fat  it  contains. 

Principle  of  the  Test. — This  test  is  very  simple,  and 
makes  use  of  a  few  facts  that  everyone  knew  before  the 
test  was  invented.  It  was  known  that,  if  milk  were  set 
away  for  several  hours,  cream  or  butter-fat  would  rise 
to  the  top.     This  indicated  that  cream  is  lighter  than  the 


TESTING  MILK.  187 

rest  of  the  milk.  Every  boy,  who  has  ever  turned  a  grind- 
stone, knows  that  if  water  is  poured  on  a  grindstone,  and 
the  stone  turned  rapidly,  the  water  is  thrown  off.  This 
indicates  that  anything  revolving  has  a  tendency  to  be 
forced  away  from  the  point  around  which  it  is  revolving. 
Dr.  Babcock  made  use  of  these  two  principles  by  de- 
vising a  machine  in  which  bottles  can  be  set  and  revolved 
rapidly.  To  make  the  test,  a  certain  amount  of  milk  is 
put  in  a  test  bottle  and  some  sulphuric  acid  added.  The 
acid  assists  in  breaking  down  the  milk,  and  makes  it 
easier  for  the  fat  to  be  separated  from  it.  The  test  bot- 
tles are  of  a  certain  size  and  shape.  They  are  put  in  the 
machine,  which  is  then  turned  at  a  given  speed.  The 
cups  in  which  the  bottles  are  set  swing  outward,  as  the 
speed  increases,  until  the  bottles  are  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, with  the  bottoms  the  farthest  away  from  the  center, 
around  which  they  are  revolving.  This  rapid  revolving 
tends  to  force  all  the  milk  into  the  bottom  of  the  bottle, 
just  as  turning  the  grindstone  tends  to  throw  water  away 
from  it.  Milk,  being  heavier  than  cream,  is  crowded 
with  more  force  into  the  bottom  of  the  bottles.  This 
crowds  the  fat  into  the  necks  of  the  bottles.  The  acid 
added  to  the  milk  causes  it  to  turn  dark,  and  the  butter- 
fat  is  amber  colored,  so  the  fat  is  easily  told  from  the 
milk.  The  necks  of  the  bottles  have  scales  on  them,  or 
marks  just  so  far  apart,  and  as  the  cream  is  forced  into 
the  neck,  one  notices  how  many  spaces  on  the  necks  of 
the  bottles  are  filled  with  fat,  and  the  number  of  spaces 
filled  indicates  the  per  cent  of  the  fat  in  the  milk.  If 
three  spaces  are  filled,  the  milk  tests  three  per  cent,  and 
if  four  and  a  half  spaces  are  filled,  the  milk  tests  four 
and  a  half  per  cent. 

Milk  Test. — If  we  say  milk  tests  five  per  cent  fat, 
we  mean  that  in  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  there  are 
five  pounds  of  butter-fat.  One  hundred  pounds  of  six 
per  cent  milk  is  worth  twice  as  much  at  the  creamery 
as  one  hundred  pounds  of  three  per  cent  milk. 

At  every  creamery  this  test  is  used,  and  when  a  farmer 


188  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKa 

brings  milk  to  the  creamery,  the  butter  maker  weighs  it, 
takes  a  sample  and  tests  it.  The  total  weight  multiplied, 
by  the  test  of  the  milk  and  divided  by  one  hundred,  gives 
the  pounds  of  fat  and  affords  the  basis  on  which  the  milk 
is  paid  for.  Thus  if  a  farmer  delivers  seventy-five 
pounds  of  milk  and  it  tests  four  per  cent,  the  problem  is 
solved  as  follows :  175  lbs.  x  4  =  700  lbs.  -  100  =  7, 
number  of  pounds  of  fat. 

Cream  is  not  pure  butter-fat,  so  must  be  tested  also. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  was  some  device  for  testing  milk  badly 
needed? 

2.  Who  invented  such  a  device? 

3.  Upon  what  principles  does  it  work? 

4.  If  you  have  seen  testing  done  at  the  creamery,  de- 
scribe it  as  best  you  can. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  per  cent  of  fat  in  milk  1 
Arithmetic : 

1.  A  hauls  230  lbs.  of  milk  to  the  creamery.  It  tests 
3.5%  fat.  How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  does  it  con- 
tain?   How  much  is  the  butter-fat  worth  at  34c.  per  lb.? 

2.  B  hauls  150  lbs.  of  milk  to  the  creamery.  It  tests 
4.5%  fat.  How  ma.ny  pounds  of  fat  does  it  contain?  How 
much  is  the  fat  worth  at  34c.  per  lb.  ? 

3.  C  delivers  75  lbs.  of  cream  to  the  creamery.  It 
tests  24%  fat.  How  many  pounds  fat  has  he?  How 
much  is  it  worth  at  34c.  per  lb.? 

TESTING   cows. 

Culling. — Now  that  dairying  is  getting  to  be  such  an 
important  part  of  farming,  farmers  are  studying  how 
they  may  secure  greater  profits.  They  have  found  that  if 
they  are  to  realize  satisfactory  returns  on  dairying,  they 
must  keep  only  cows  that  are  capable  of  producing  large 
amounts  of  milk  and  butter-fat.  They  have  found  also 
that  the  only  way  to  know  just  what  each  cow  is  doing 
is  to  weigh  the  milk.  At  first  this  seemed  like  an  unne- 
cessary amount  of  work,  but  now  nearly  every  good  dairy- 


TESTING  COWS. 


189 


man  tests  his  cows  and  finds  that  it  pays  him,  because  it 
takes  less  time  to  test  the  cow&  than  to  milk  one  or  two 
unprofitable  cows. 

Good  care,  is  absolutely  essential  to  successful  dairy- 
ing, but  even  with  good  care  some  cows  will  not  give 
profitable  returns. 

Weighing  Milk. — In  order  to  know  just  what  each 
cow  is  producing,  it  is  necessary  to  weigh  the  milk.  This 
is  very  simple  if  one  has  a  spring  balance  hung  in  the  barn 


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1 

Fig-.  80. — Outfit  for  making-  the  Babcock  test.  From  left  to  right, 
an  eight  bottle  tester;  a  graduate  for  measuring  acid;  a  test 
bottle;  compasses  for  measuring  fat  in  neck  of  bottle;  a  pipette 
for   measuring   milk,    and  a   sample  bottle. 


near  the  milk-can,  and  a  sheet  of  paper  with  a  column  for 
each  cow,  tacked  up  nearby,  so  the  results  can  be  jotted 
down  as  the  milk  is  weighed.  It  is  not  necessary  to  weigh 
the  milk  every  day.  Weighing  it  night  and  morning, 
once  every  ten  days,  or  even  once  a  month,  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  determine  quite  accurately  the  amount  of  milk 
a  cow  has  given  for  the  month. 

Advajitages  of  Weighing  Milk  Every  Day. — There  are 
a  great  many  advantages,  though,  in  weighing  milk  every 


190  AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

day.  By  so  doing  one  knows  accurately  how  much  milk 
a  cow  has  given  during  the  month.  It  also  enables  one 
to  telll  at  once  if  a  cow  gives  lessi  than  her  usual  flow  of 
milk.     If  a  cow  has  been  giving  fifteen  pounds  of  milk, 


Fig.  81. — A  pure-bred  holstein  cow.     She  gave  in  30  days,  114.9  pounds 
of  butter. 

and  suddenly  drops  to  thirteen  pounds,  one's  attention  is 
called  to  the  fact  just  as  soon  as  he  weighs  the  milk.  He 
is,  of  course,  interested  at  once,  and  looks  for  the  cause. 
He  may  find  that  the  cow  got  out  of  the  yard  and  the  dog 
was  set  on  her.  He  may  know  that  she  was  left  out  in 
the  cold  longer  than  she  should  have  been,  or  that  she  was 
turned  out  to  get  a  drink  when  the  wind  was  so  cold,  and 
the  water  so  near  frozen,  that  she  did  not  get  the  amount 


TESTING  COWS.  191 

of  water  she  needed.  He  may  find  that  a  window  or  door 
was  left  open  and  the  cold  draught  chilled  her.  AVhatever 
the  cause  of  the  loss  in  milk  may  be,  if  one's  attention  is 
called  to  it  he  can  usually  find  out  and  remedy  it. 

Sampling. — A  sample  to  be  tested  for  the  per  cent  of 
fat  should  be  taken  just  as  the  milk  is  being  weighed. 
Stir  the  milk  in  the  pail,  to  make  sure  it  is  all  uniform, 
then  take  a  small  sample  in  a  bottle.  Each  sample  may 
be  tested  soon  after  being  taken;  or  a  simpler  way  is  to 
take  several  samples  from  the  same  cow  and  keep  them 
in  one  bottle,  and  test  all  together.  In  this  way  of  testing, 
some  preservative  must  be  added  to  keep  the  samples  from 
spoiling. 

Testing. — Any  careful  boy,  twelve  or  more  years  old, 
can  test  milk  if  he  has  a  tester  and  is  shown  how.  Or  if 
the  milk  is  weighed  at  home  and  samples  taken,  the  cream- 
ery man  will,  as  a  rule,  test  them  for  a  very  small  charge 
or  for  nothing.  At  one  place  the  farmers  pay  three  cents 
a  sample  for  testing.  If  one  has  a  sample  tested  each 
month  from  a  cow,  it  would  cost  but  thirty-six  cents  per 
year,  and  this  would  certainly  be  a  paying  investment.  In 
some  places  the  farmers  form  a  cow-testing  association 
and  hire  a  man  to  test  all  the  cows.  He  comes  to  each 
farm  once  a  month,  and  weighs  and  tests  the  milk  from 
each  cow  night  and  morning,  then  goes  to  the  next  farm- 
er.    This  is  a  very  satisfactory  arrangement. 

Work  for  Boys. — Any  boy  who  is  milking  cows  can 
get  some  good  lessons  in  arithmetic,  and  greatly  increase 
his  knowledge  of  dairying,  by  trying  the  work  suggested 
herein.  He  can  weigh  the  milk  separately  from  each  cow, 
take  one  or  more  samples  from  each  cow's  milk  each 
month,  and  test  them  at  home  or  have  the  creamery  man 
test  them.  In  this  way  he  will  know  how  much  milk 
each  cow  gives  during  the  month,  and  the  per  cent  of  but- 
ter-fat it  tests.  He  can  then  (probably  at  school)  figure 
out  how  much  butter-fat  each  cow  has  given  during  the 
month.  It  will  be  interesting  and  valuable  to  compare  the 
records  from  the  different  cows;    and  probably  the  boys 


192  AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

would  be  interested  to  compare  the  records  on  the  differ- 
ent farms,  and  in  trying  to  find  out  why  the  cows  are  do- 
ing better  on  one  farm  than  on  another. 
Questions: 

1.  For  what  reason  is  it  wise  to  weigh  and  test  the 
milk  from  each  cow  on  the  farm? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  in  weighing  the  milk 
from  each  cow  at  each  milking? 

3.  Can  you  tell  how  to  take  a  sample  of  milk  for  test- 
ing? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  cow  gives  an  average  of  20  pounds  of  milk  per 
day  for  300  days  each  year.  What  is  her  yearly  milk 
production  ? 

2.  A  cow  gives  6,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  test- 
ing 4  per  cent  fat.  How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  does 
she  give?  How  much  is  the  butter-fat  worth  at  30c.  per 
pound? 

3.  A  cow  gives  6,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  testing 
5  per  cent  fat.  How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  does  she 
give?  How  much  is  the  butter-fat  worth  at  30c.  per 
pound  ? 

4.  The  average  cow  in  the  state  gives  about  4,000 
pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  testing  about  4  per  cent  fat.. 
How  many  pounds  of  butter  doesi  she  give?  What  is  it 
worth  at  30c.  per  pound? 

POSSIBILITIES   OF    THE   DAIRY  COW. 

What  are  Your  Cows  Doing? — How  many  of  our  read- 
ers know  how  much  milk  each  of  their  cows  gives  in  a 
year  and  the  actual  cost  of  keeping  each  cow  for  the 
same  length  of  time?  Does  it  not  seem  strange  that  so 
few  people  take  the  trouble  to  know  these  things,  when 
they  have  such  important  bearing  on  the  profits  of  the 
farm?  We  want  to  interest  our  readers  in  this  and  get 
them  to  find  out  what  their  herds  are  doing.  It  will  be 
much  more  interesting  to  feed  and  milk  the  cows  if  one 
gets  interested  in  seeing  how  much  he  can  make  them 


POSSIBILITIES   OF  THE  DAIRY  COW.  193 

produce.  If  one  makes  up  his  mind  that  a  certain  cow 
can  give  6,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year,  or  an  average  of  20 
lbs.  daily  for  300  days  in  a  year,  he  will  want  to  weigh 
the  milk  every  day  to  see  if  he  is  getting  the  20  lbs.  If 
she  gives  a  little  les!s  one  day  than  she  did  the  day  be- 
fore one  will  try  to  find  out  the  cause  and  remedy  it.  If 
one  but  makes  up  his  mind  that  certain  results  can  be 
secured,  he  will  be  anxious  to  feed  properly  and  may  won- 
der what  is  the  best  kind  of  feed  to  make  a  cow  give  milk. 
He  will  want  to  read  how  other  people  whose  cows  give 
large  amounts  of  milk,  feed  their  herds. 

Increased  yields. — If  every  farmer  were  to  become  in- 
terested in  his  cows  and  feed  and  care  for  them  just  the 
best  he  could,  the  average  record  of  dairy  cows  would  be 
increased  to  the  extent  of  fifty  or  one  hundred  pounds  of 
butter-fat  per  cow  per  year.  If  butter  is  worth  30c.  per 
pound,  such  an  increase  would  mean  an  increased  income 
from  each  cow  of  $15.00  to  $30.00  per  year. 

Many  farmers,  who  hav6  become  interested  in  caring 
for  their  cows,  have  increased  their  production  of  milk 
and  butter  until  their  whole  herds  give  an  average  yield 
of  from  250  lbs.  to  350  lbs.  of  butter  per  year. 

A  Good  Cow. — ^What  would  you  think  of  a  cow  that 
would  give  1000  lbs.  of  butter  in  a  year?  There  is  such 
a  cow  in  Wisconsin.  Her  name  is  Yeksa  Sunbeam.  This 
cow  was  at  one  time  owned  by  a  farmer  in  Minnesota,  but 
the  farmer  did  not  know  what  a  valuable  cow  she  was,  be- 
cause he  never  weighed  or  tested  the  milk  she  gave,  nor 
paid  any  particular  attention  to  the  way  she  was  fed  or 
cared  for.  So  he  sold  her  to  a  man  in  Wisconsin  by  the 
name  of  Rietbrock.  Mr.  Rietbrock  liked  cows,  took  good 
care  of  them  and  felt  pride  in  seeing  them  look  well  and 
comfortable  and  in  having  them  make  large  recoids. 

By  keeping  records  of  his  cows  so  he  could  disc<vd  the 
poor  ones,  and  by  careful  feeding  and  breeding,  Mr.  Riet- 
brock has  built  up  a  herd  of  cows  that  is  truly  remarkable 
for  its  average  production. 


194  AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

Twenty-five  cows  in  this  herd  averaged,  in  one  year, 
10,663  lbs.  of  milk  and  550  lbs.  of  butter  faf  per  cow,  and 
the  one  cow,  Yeksa  Sunbeam,  made  the  phenomenal  rec- 
ord of  1,000  lbs.  of  butter-fat  in  one  year. 

Possibilities  in  Dairying. — Mr.  Kietbrock  is  an  excep- 
tional man  and  has  an  exceptionally  good  herd  of  cows, 
but  any  industrious  boy  who  will  study  the  matter  of 
feeding,  breeding  and  caring  for  cows,  and  who  will  go 
at  it  with  a  will,  can,  in  a  few  years,  grade  up  a  herd  of 
cows  that  will  average  at  least  100  lbs.  of  butter  more 
than  the  present  average  or  from  250  to  350  lbs.  per  year 
per  cow.  Two  such  cows  will  bring  in  a  large  enough 
income  in  a  year  to  pay  the  entire  expense  of  one  year  at 
an  Agricultural  School. 

We  would  like  to  see  two  boys  in  the  same  family,  or 
in  the  same  neighborhood,  enter  into  a  little  contest  to 
see  which  one  could  make  his  favorite  cow  or  cows  pro- 
duce the  greatest  number  of  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  a 
year.  To  succeed  in  such  a  contest  a  boy  would  have  to 
work  and  study  and  get  advice  from  his  parents.  Such  a 
year's  earnest  work  would  bring  a  good  cash  return,  and 
would  furnish  an  experience  worth  a  great  deal  of  money 
to  any  boy  who  expects  to  be  a  farmer. 

Questions : 

1.  How  can  you  find  out  how  much  milk  your  best 
cow  gives? 

2.  Is  the  average  production  of  milk  per  cow  as  much 
as  it  should  be  ? 

3.  What  could  farmers  do  to  increase  the  average 
amount  of  milk  given  per  cow? 

4.  What  could  you  do  to  make  the  cows  on  your  farm 
more  profitable? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  The  average  cow  gives  about  150  lbs.  of  butter-fat 
in  a  year.  How  much  is  this  butter-fat  worth  at  25c.  per 
pound  ? 


FEEDING  ANIMALS.  195 

2.  The  average  production  of  Mr.  Rietbrock's  herd 
was  550  lbs.  of  butter-fat  in  a  year.  How  much  is  this 
butter-fat  worth  at  25c.  per  pound? 

3.  If  it  costs  half  of  the  value  of  the  bu!tter-fat  for 
feed,  how  much  does  one  get  for  his  labor  in  caring  for 
a  cow  that  gives  150  lbs.  of  butter-fat?  How  much  does 
he  get  for  his  labor  if  a  cow  gives  550'  lbs.  of  butter-fat? 
(Butter-fat  at  25c.  per  pound.) 

FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

Food  Requirements. — We  have  learned  that  the  car- 
bon dioxide  exhaled  by  animals  is  used  by  growing 
plants;  that  this  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air  unites  with 
water  and  other  elements  taken  by  the  roots  of  the  plants 
from  the  soil,  and  forms  starch  and  other  compounds  of 
which  plants  are  composed.  The  heat  or  energy  given 
off  by  the  sun  is  used  to  build  up  these  compounds  in  the 
plant. 

Animals  are  dependent  upon  plants  for  all  of  their 
feed.  When  plants,  such  as  grass,  hay  or  grain,  are  eat- 
en by  animals  and  digested,  the  compounds  they  contain 
are  broken  down  and  used  by  the  animal  body,  and  the 
energy  required  to  build  up  the  compounds  in  the  plants 
furnishes  energy  to  the  animal. 

Very  few  plants  contain,  in  the  right  proportion,  the 
elements  required  by  animals,  so  a  combination  of  two 
or  more  kinds  of  feed  is  found  necessary  to  supply  the 
animal  with  needed  feed.  Different  kinds  of  animals, 
and  animals  doing  different  classes  and  amounts  of  work, 
require  different  kinds  and  amounts  of  feed.  So  the  in- 
telligent feeding  of  animals  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  different  feeds  and  of  the  requirements 
of  the  various  classes  of  animals  doing  different  kinds 
and  amounts  of  work. 

Balanced  Ration. — When  one  feeds  just  the  right 
kinds  and  amounts  of  feed  to  supply  the  needs  of  the 
animal  fed,  he  is  feeding  a  balanced  ration.  Such  a  ra- 
tion is  most  satisfactory  and  economical  because  it  sup- 


196  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

plies  all  the  elements  needed,  with  no  surplus  of  any  one. 
All  animals  require  feed  that  contains  in  the  proper  pro- 
portion the  three  compounds:  Protein,  carbohydrates 
and  fat.  (You  have,  in  your  Physiology,  learned  some- 
thing of  the  character  of  these  three  elements.) 

By  careful  experiments  the  amounts  of  protein,  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  required  by  different  animals,  doing 
various  amounts  of  work,  have  been  determined.  Like- 
wise the  composition  of  the  different  feeds  has  been 
found  by  analysis  and  by  feeding.  It  is,  therefore,  com- 
paratively easy  to  so  combine  the  common  feeds  as  to 
very  accurately  supply  the  needs  of  any  animal. 

Protein  is  a  term  applied  to  a  group  of  compounds 
containing  nitrogen.  Protein  is  used  by  animals  to  make 
muscle  or  lean  flesh,  bone,  hair  or  wool,  tendons,  nerves, 
casein  and  albumen  in  milk,  etc.  No  other  compound  can 
take  the  place  of  protein,  consequently  it  is  very  import- 
ant that  enough  of  this  compound  be  fed,  or  the  animal 
cannot  keep  up  in  flesh  and  production  or  work.  If  too 
much  protein  is  fed,  it  can  replace  the  other  elements; 
but,  as  feeds  containing  a  high  percentage  of  protein  are 
usually  expensive,  it  is  not  wise  to  feed  more  than  is 
needed. 

Feeds  containing  a  large  proportion  of  protein,  as 
bran,  oil  meal,  clover,  etc.,  are  called  nitrogenous  feeds. 

Carbohydrates  are  those  substances  in  feed  that  are 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but  have  no 
nitrogen.  Sugar,  starch,  fibre,  etc.,  are  carbohydrates. 
They  are  used  in  the  body  to  produce  fat,  or  are  burned 
in  the  body  to  produce  heat  or  energy.  They  cannot  be 
used  in  place  of  protein. 

Fat. — ^The  oils,  wax  and  fats  contained  in  feeds  are 
called  fat.  It  is  used  in  the  animal  body  for  the  same 
purpose  as  are  carbohydrates.  One  pound  of  fat  is  w^orth 
as  much  as  2.2  pounds  of  carbohydrates. 

Feeds  containing  a  large  proportion  of  carbohydrates 
and  fat,  as  timothy  or  wild  hay,  corn,  barley,  etc.,  are 
called  non-nitrogenous  feeds. 


COMPOSITION    OF  FEEDS.  197 

Questions : 

1.  What  is  a  "balanced  ration?" 

2.  What  is  protein,  and  for  what  is  it  used  in  the  ani- 
mal body? 

3.  What  are  carbohydrates',  and  for  what  are  they 
used  in  the  animal  body? 

4.  What  substances  are  known  as  fat,  and  for  what 
are  they  used  in  the  animal  body  ? 

5.  What  classes  of  feeds  are  called  nitrogenous 
feeds?    What  classes  are  non-nitrogenous? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Bran,  oilmeal,  and  clover  are  feeds  rich  in  pro- 
tein. How  much  is  each  worth  per  pound  when  oilmeal 
is  worth  $35.00  per  ton,  bran  $24.00  per  ton,  and  clover 
hay  $5.00  per  ton? 

2.  Corn,  barley  and  timothy  hay  are  feeds  rich  in 
carbohydrates.  How  much  is  each  worth  per  pound  when 
corn  is  worth  35c  per  bu.  (56  lbs.),  barley  39c  per  bu. 
(48  lbs),  and  timothy  hay  $5.00  per  ton? 

3.  There  is  6.8%  of  protein  in  clover  hay.  How  many 
pounds  of  protein  in  one  ton?  How  much  does  the  pro- 
tein cost  per  pound  if  clover  hay  is  worth  $5.00  per  ton? 

4.  There  is  12.9%  of  protein  in  bran.  How  many 
pounds  of  protein  in  one  ton?  How  much  does  the 
protein  cost  per  pound  if  bran  is  worth  $24.00  per  ton? 

COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDS. 

Classes  of  Feeds. — Since  the  common  feeds  are  di- 
vided into  two  great  classes,  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrog- 
enous, it  is  well  to  know  in  which  class  each  farm  feed 
belongs.  All  of  the  common  feeds  contain  protein,  car- 
bohydrates and  fat,  hence  might  be  classed  in  either 
of  these  groups.  The  feeds  containing  a  proportionate- 
ly large  amount  of  protein  are  classed  in  the  nitrogenous 
group,  and  those  containing  proportionately  large 
amounts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  classed  in  the  non- 
nitrogenous  group.  The  common  feeds  used  on  the 
farm  are  also  classed  as  grains  or  concentrates,  and 
roughage.  The  following  table  shows  the  composition 
or  digestible  nutrients  in  common  farm  feeds: 


198  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  One  Pound  of  Feed. 

(1)  Nitrogenous  Grain  Feeds. 

Carbohy- 

Protein.       drates.  Fat. 

Oats    092           .47  .042 

Shorts    122          .50  .038 

Bran    129           .40  .034 

Oil  Meal 293          .33  .070 

(2)  Non-Nitrogenous  Grain  Feeds. 

Carbohy- 

Protein.       drates.  Fat. 

Corn   079           .67  .043 

Barley    087          .66  .016 

Emmer  (Speltz)   091          .68  .021 

Rye   099           .68  .011 

(3)  Nitrogenous  Roughage. 

Carbohy- 

Protein.       drates.  Fat. 

Alfalfa 110           .40  .012 

Red  Clover 068          .36  .017 

Mangels Oil           .05  .001 

(4)  Non-Nitrogenous  Roughage. 

Carbohy- 

Protein.       drates.  Fat. 

Corn  Silage 009          .11  .007 

Corn  Stover 017           .33  .007 

Corn  Fodder 025           .35  .012 

Slough  Hay 026           .42  .011 

Timothy  Hay 028           .43  .014 

Prairie  Hay 030          .42  .014 

A  careful  study  of  the  above  table  v^^ill  enable^  one 
to  readily  classify  the  common  farm  feeds,  v^^hich  is  of 
great  advantage  to  the  feeder.  The  grain  feeds  rich 
in  protein,  as  a  rule,  cost  more  per  pound  than  do  the 
non-nitrogenous  grain  feeds.  So  it  is  usually  desirable 
to  feed  as  sparingly  of  them  as  possible  and  still  supply 
the  needs  of  the  animals  fed. 


COMPOSITION  OP  FEEDS.  199 

In  glancing  over  the  tables  of  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous  grain  feeds,  one  will  see  that  the  proportion 
of  protein  to  carbohydrates  and  fat  is  much  larger  in 
the  former  than  in  the  latter.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
two  classes  of  roughage. 

Feeds  Compared. — In  comparing  the  grain  feeds  or 
concentrates  with  the  roughage,  one  will  see  that  a 
pound  of  grain  usually  contains  more  nutrients  than  a 


I'ig^.  82. — Making  Clover  Hay.  Clover  should  be  grown  and  fed  on 
every  farm.  It  is  the  cheapest  nitrogenous  feed  commonly  grown 
grown  in  Minnesota. 

pound  of  roughage.  As  a  rule  there  is  an  abundance  of 
roughage  on  the  farm  for  which  there  is  little  or  no 
market,  and  there  is  always  a  market  for  the  grains, 
hence  there  is  a  tendency  to  feed  roughage  largely  and 
economize  on  grain.  A  reasonable  amount  of  roughage 
is  desirable,  but  an  animal  that  is  working  cannot  eat 
and  digest  enough  of  it  to  supply  its  needs,  so  it  should 
have  some  grain.  To  feed  only  grain  is  not  desirable, 
as  it  is  expensive  and  does  not  supply  enough  bulk.  The 
successful  feeder  must  regulate  the  amount  of  each  of 
these  classes  of  feeds  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  animals. 


200  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

Roughage. — The  kind  of  roughage  fed  determines 
the  kind  of  grain  that  should  be  fed  to  make  a  good 
ration.  For  example,  if  one  feeds  a  milch  cow  fodder 
corn,  timothy  or  slough  hay,  which  are  non-nitrogenous 
feeds,  and  then  feeds  her  corn  or  barley  for  grain,  also 
non-nitrogenous,  the  cow  will  get  too  much  carbohy- 
drates and  cannot  eat  enough  to  get  the  protein  she 
needs.  If  clover  hay  is  fed,  which  is  nitrogenous  in 
character,  then  corn  or  barley,  non-nitrogenous  feeds, 
may  be  used  for  a  large  part  of  the  grain  feed. 
Questions : 

1.  Name  the  common  farm  feeds  that  would  be  class- 
ed in  the  nitrogenous  group.  In  the  non-nitrogenous 
group. 

2.  Which  grain  feeds  cost  more  per  pound,  nitrog- 
enous or  non-nitrogenous? 

3.  Why  should  not  a  ration  for  a  milch  cow  or  a 
work  horse  consist  entirely  of  roughage? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Find  the  number  of  pounds  of  protein,  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  of  fat  in  10  lbs.  of  timothy  hay,  10  lbs. 
of  fodder  corn  and  7  lbs.  of  barley. 

2.  Find  the  number  of  pounds  of  protein,  of  carbohy- 
drates and  of  fat  in  20  lbs.  fodder  corn,  4  lbs.  of  bran  and 
3  lbs.  of  barley. 

3.  Find  the  number  of  pounds  of  protein,  of  carbohy- 
drates and  of  fat  in  18  lbs.  of  clover  hay  and  5  lbs.  of 
corn. 

FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  DAIRY   COWS. 

Feed  of  Maintenance. — It  is  well  known  that  every 
animal  requires  a  certain  amount  of  feed  for  bodily 
maintenance,  even  though  it  may  be  doing  no  work. 
Feed  is  needed  to  keep  up  the  body-heat,  for  digestion, 
and  other  functions  of  the  body,  and  this  is  called  food 
of  maintenance. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  requirements  for  main- 
tenance are  approximately  the  same  for  all  animals  of 
the  same  class  and  weight  and  kept  under  similar  con- 
ditions. 


FEED  REQUIREMENTS  OF  DAIRY  COWS.  201 

The  amount  of  feed  required  for  maintenance  has 
been  determined  by  feeding,  for  several  months,  mature, 
idle  animals  kept  under  normal  conditions,  and  by  weigh- 
ing the  feed  fed  and  weighing  the  animals,  and  by  regu- 
lating the  feed  so  that  the  various  animals  neither  gain 
nor  lose  in  weight. 

Prof.  T.  L.  Haecker,  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station,  has  found  by  extensive  tests  that  .07  of  a  pound 
of  protein  (Pro.),  .7  of  a  pound  of  carbohydrates  (C.  H.), 
and  .01  of  a  pound  of  fat  are  required  per  hundred  pounds 
live  weight  to  maintain  a  cow  not  giving  milk.  If  a  cow 
weighs  1000  pounds  (10  hundred  pounds)  she  will  re- 
quire for  maintenance  .7  of  a  pound  of  Pro.,  7  pounds 
of  C.  H.,  and  .1  of  a  pound  of  fat;  that  is,  ten  times  as 
much  as  the  requirements  for  one  hundred  pounds. 

Nutrients  Required. — Prof.  Haecker  has  found  also 
that  the  more  milk  a  cow  gives  the  more  feed  she  needs, 
and  the  richer  the  milk  the  more  feed  required  to  pro- 
duce it.  For  the  convenience  of  feeders  he  has  compiled 
a  table  from  which  the  following  is  taken.  Any  one 
knowing  the  weight  of  a  cow  and  the  amount  and  rich- 
ness of  her  milk,  can  easily  determine  the  amount  of  nu- 
trients she  needs  for  maintenance  and  to  produce  milk. 

Nutrients  Required  to  Produce  One  Pound  of  Milk  of  a 
Given  Per  Cent  of  Butter-Fat. 


Per  Cent  Fat 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

3 

.042 

.19 

.013 

3.5 

.045 

.21 

.015 

*4 

.048 

.23 

.016 

4.5 

.051 

.25 

.018 

5 

.054 

.27 

.019 

5.5 

.057 

.29 

.020 

6 

.060 

.31 

.022 

From  the  above  table  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  nutrients  required  to  produce  a  given 
number  of  pounds  of  milk  of  a  given  per  cent  of  fat. 
For  example,  a  cow  that  gives/  15  pounds  of  4  per  cent 
milk  will  require,  for  its  production,   15  times  as  much 


202  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

of  the  nutrients  as  is  required  to  produce  one  pound  of 
milk  of  the  same  quality.     (See  star  in  table  above.) 

15X.048  lbs.  Pro.,  .23  lbs.  C.  II.  and  .016  lbs.  fat  equals 
.72  lbs.  Pro.,  3.45  lbs.  C.  H.  and  .24  lbs.  fat.  Thus,  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  cow  requires  .72  lbs.  Pro.,  3.45  lbs.  C.  H. 
and  .24  lbs.  fat,  simply  for  the  production  of  milk.  In 
addition  to  this,  she  must  be  supplied  with  feed  for  bodily 
maintenance.  If  the  cow  weighs  1,100  lbs.  she  will  r'e- 
quire  11  times  .07  lbs.  of  Pro.,  .7  lbs.  of  C.  H.  and  .01  lbs. 
of  fat  (the  amount  required  to  maintain  100  lbs.  live 
weight)  or  .77  lbs.  of  Pro.,  7.7  lbs.  of  C.  H.  and  .11  lbs. 
of  fat. 

From  the  above  facts,  we  know  that  a  cow  weighing 
eleven  hundred  pounds,  and  giving  15  pounds  of  4%  milk, 
requires  daily : 

Pro.  C.  H.        Fat. 

P'or  maintenance    77  7.7  .11 

For  15  pounds  of  4%  milk 72  3.45  .24 

Total  daily  requirement 1.49  11.15  .35 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  to  determine  the 
requirements  of  a  cow  one  must  know  approximately 
her  weight,  her  daily  milk  production  and  its  per  cent 
fat.  If  these  facts  are  known  it  is,  with  the  use  of  the 
table,  a  very  simple  mathematical  problem  to  determine 
her  daily  needs. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  ''food  of 
maintenance  ? ' ' 

2.  IIow  have  feeders  found  out  how  much  feed  an- 
imals require  for  maintenance  ? 

3.  Why  does  a  cow  require  more  feed  when  giving 
20  pounds  of  4%  milk  than  when  she  is  giving  10  pounds 
of  4%  milk? 

4.  What  three  factors  must  be  known  in  order  to 
determine  the  daily  feed  requirements  of  a  cow? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  For  bodily  maintenance  a  cow  requires  .07  lbs. 
of  Pro.,  .7  lbs.  of  C.  H.  and  .01  lbs.  of  fat  per  100  lbs.  live 


TO  COMPOUND  A  RATION.  203 

weight.    How  many  pounds  of  each  nutrient  are  required 
to  maintain  a  cow  weighing  10^50  lbs.  ? 

2.  If  .051  lbs.  of  Pro.,  .25  lbs.  of  C.  H.  and  .018  lbs. 
of  fat  are  required  to  produce  1  lb.  of  41/2,%  milk,  how 
many  pounds  of  each  nutrient  are  required  to  produce 
18  lbs.  of  41/2%  milk? 

3.  How  much  Pro.,  C.  H.,  and  fat  will  a  1050-pound 
cow  giving  18  lbs.  of  4%%  milk  require?  See  examples 
above. 

TO   COMPOUND    A    RATION. 

Proportion  of  Grain  to  Roughage. — When  one  knows 
a  cow's  requirements  it  is  a  very  simple  matter,  by  using 
the  table  on  page  198,  showing  the  composition  of  feeds, 
to  compound  a  ration  that  will  supply  them. 

We  have  found  that  an  eleven  hundred  pound  cow 
giving  15  pounds  of  4%  milk  daily  requires  daily  1.49 
pounds  of  protein,  11.15  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  .35 
pounds  of  fat.  A  cow  could  not  eat  enough  roughage  to 
supply  this  amount  of  nutrient.  She  must  have  some  more 
concentrated  feed  such  as  grain.  Many  dairymen  feed 
grain  in  the  proportion  of  1  pound  of  grain  to  each  3 
pounds  of  milk  that  the  cow  gives,  and  supply  the  rest  of 
the  nutrients  required  by  feeding  roughage.  This  is  prac- 
tically a  safe  basis.  Thus  the  cow,  whose  record  is  given 
above,  would  require  about  5  pounds  of  grain  (as  she 
gives  15  pounds  of  milk  daily)  and  roughage  to  complete 
the  ration. 

A  Simple  Ration. — To  compound  a  ration  one  must 
know  the  composition  of  various  feeds  to  be  fed.  See 
table,  page  198. 

Daily  Ration  for  an  1100  Pound  Cow  Giving  15  Pounds 
of  4%  Milk  Daily: 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat. 

Corn,  4  lbs 316  2.67  .172 

Bran,  1  lb 129  .40  .034 

Clover  Hay,  12  lbs 816  4.30  .20 

Fodder  Corn,  10  lbs 250  3.46  .12 

Total  Nutrients    1.511       10.83      .526 


204  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   POLKS. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  this  ration  contains  approximately 
the  right  amount  of  protein,  for  which  no  other  nutrient 
may  be  substituted;,  but  is  a  little  deficient  in  carbohy- 
drates. There  is  .17  pounds  more  fat  than  is  required, 
which  may  be  used  to  make  up  the  shortage  in  carbohy- 
drates. We  have  learned  that  fat  and  carbohydrates  are 
used  for  the  same  purposes  in  the  animal  body,  and  that 


Fig.    83. — Mixing-   the  Grain   Feed.     In   this  case   100   lbs.    of  bran   and 
400   lbs.  of  corn  meal. 

fat  is  worth  2.2  times  as  much  as  carbohydrates,  hence 
the  excess  fat  (.17x2.2)  is  equal  to  .37  of  a  pound  of 
carbohydrates;  which,  added  to  the  10.83  pounds  fur- 
nished by  the  ration,  makes  11.20  pounds,  or  approxi- 
mately what  is  required. 

Features  of  the  Above  Ration. — It  is  not  usually  de- 
sirable to  feed  as  large  a  proportion  of  corn  to  dairy 
cows  as  is  provided  by  this  ration,  as  corn  has  a  tend- 
ency to  produce  fat  rather  than  milk.    But  when  clover 


TO  COMPOUND  A  RATION.  205 

hay,  which  is  rich  in  protein,  is  fed,  a  large  proportion 
of  corn  or  other  non-nitrogenous  grains  may  be  used. 
"When  timothy,  corn  stover  or  wild  hay,  which  are  de- 
ficient in  protein,  are  fed  for  roughage,  a  larger  amount 
of  bran  or  other  nitrogenous  grain  would  be  required. 

Since  clover  can  be  grown  as  cheaply  as  any  hay  crop, 
it  is  advisable  to  provide  plenty  of  well  cured  clover  hay 
for  stock ;  for  it  makes  possible  the  use  of  cheaper  grain 
feeds,  as  corn  and  barley,  instead  of  oats,  bran  and  oil 
meal,  which  must  be  fed  if  non-nitrogenous  roughage  is 
used. 

Feeding  a  Ration. — To  feed  a  cow  such  a  ration  it  is 
not  necessary  to  weigh  each  day  4  pounds  of  corn,  1 
pound  of  bran  and  the  hay  and  fodder.  One  would  mix 
100  pounds,  or  more,  of  bran  with  4  times  as  much  corn. 
In  feeding,  use  a  measure  that  holds  the  desired  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  the  mixture.  By  weighing  the  hay 
and  corn  fodder  a  few  times,  one  would  soon  be  able  to 
feed  approximately  the  right  amount  of  each  without 
weighing  it. 
Questions: 

1.  In  what  way  can  one  determine  approximately 
the  amount  of  grain  needed  by  a  cow? 

2.  Tell  how  you  would  proceed  to  compound  a  ra- 
tion for  a  cow. 

3.  Would  you  weigh  out  the  ration  each  time  you 
feed  a  cow? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  What  is  the  cost  of  a  ration  composed  of  4  pounds 
corn  at  50c.  per  bu.  (56  lbs.),  1  lb.  bran  at  $20  per  ton, 
12  lbs.  clover  hay  at  $5.00  per  ton,  and  10  lbs.  corn  fodder 
at  $4.00  per  ton? 

2.  A  cow  fed  the  above  ration  gives  15  lbs.  of  4% 
milk.  What  is  the  milk  worth  when  butter-fat  is  selling 
for  30c.  per  pound? 

3.  How  many  pounds  of  protein  in  one  ton  of  bran? 
What  does  it  cost  per  pound  when  bran  costs  $20  per  ton? 

4.  How  many  pounds  of  protein  in  one  ton  of  clover 
hay?  What  does  it  cost  per  pound  when  clover  hay 
costs  $5.00  per  ton? 


206  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Rations  Continued. 

Figuring  Rations. — From  the  table  given  on  page  201 
any  person  who  understands  decimals  will  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  determining  the  amount  of  protein,  carbohy- 
drates and  fat  required  by  a  cow  whose  weight,  milk 
flow  and  quality  of  milk  is  known.  Likewise  one  know- 
ing the  requirements  of  a  cow  and  the  composition  of 
feeds,  as  given  on  page  198,  can  as  easily  determine 
the  mixture  of  the  various  feeds  required  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  cow. 

A  Poor  Ration. — A  very  common  ration  fed  to  dairy 
cows  on  the  farm  is  composed  of  slough  hay,  corn  stover, 
and  ground  barley  and  corn.  Suppose  a  1,000  lb.  cow 
gives  20  lbs.  of  milk  testing  4.5%  fat.    She  will  require: 

Pro.     C.  H.    Fat. 

For   maintenance. 7  7.         .1 

For  20  lbs.  of  4.5%  milk 1.02         5.         .36 

Total  requirements  1.72       12.         .46 

A  cow  giving  20  lbs.  of  milk  would  require  seven  or 
eight  pounds  of  grain.  Let  us)  see  what  kind  of  a  ration 
she  would  get  if  fed  the  above  mentioned  feeds: 

Daily  Ration  for  a  1000  lb.  Cow  Giving 
20  lbs.  of  4.5%  Milk. 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat. 

Corn 4  lbs.         .316  2.67  .172 

Barley    3  lbs.         .261  1.98  .048 

Slough  hay    12  lbs.         .312  5.03  .132 

Com  Stover  12  lbs.        .204  3.93  .084 

Total  nutrients 1.093     13.61         .436 

This  ration  would  be  all  a  cow  could  possibly  eat,  as 
it  supplies  31  lbs.  of  dry  feed,  yet  it  comes  far  short  of 
supplying  enough  protein.  We  have  learned  that  neither 
carbohydrates  nor  fats  can  take  the  place  of  protein. 
A  cow  must  have  sufficient  protein  or  she  cannot  maintain 
her  body  or  produce  milk.    It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 


TO  COMPOUND  A  RATION.  207 

then,  that  a  cow  fed  a  ration  similar  to  the  above  would 
gradually  decrease  in  her  milk  flow  until  her  require- 
ments balanced  the  protein  she  was  getting.  She  would 
then  get  more  carbohydrates  (fat-forming  feed)  than 
needed  for  milk  production,  and  so  would  begin  to  fatten 
up,  which  is  very  undesirable  in  a  milch  cow  while  giv- 
ing milk. 

A  Good  Ration. — The  required  nutrients  for  the  cow 
mentioned  above  could  be  supplied  by  replacing  3  lbs. 
of  the  corn  or  barley  with  3  lbs.  of  oil  meal  (try"  it) ,  but 
such  a  ration  would  be  more  expensive  and  no  better  than 
if  the  12  lbs.  of  slough  hay  and  7  lbs.  of  the  corn  stover 
were  replaced  with  16  lbs.  of  clover  hay.  This  would 
make  a  good  ration  and  supply  the  need  of  the  cow. 

Daily  Ration  for  a  1000  lb.  Cow  Giving 
20  lbs.  of  4.5%  Milk. 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat. 

Corn    4  lbs.         .316  2.67  .172 

Barley 3  lbs.         .261  1.98  .048 

Corn  stover  5  lbs.         .085  1.64  .035 

Clover  hay 16  lbs.       1.09  5.73  .270 

Total  nutrients    1.752       12.02         .525 

This  ration  emphasizes  the  fact  that  every  farmer 
should  provide  plenty  of  good  clover  hay  for  his  cattle. 

Questions: 

1.  Can  you  tell  what  is  wrong  with  the  ration  given 
under  the  head  ''A  poor  ration"? 

2.  Why  would  a  cow  be  unable  to  keep  up  her  flow 
of  milk  if  fed  such  a  ration? 

3.  Why  is  the  ration  given  under  the  head  "A  good 
ration"  better  than  the  other? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Find  the  cost  of  the  grain  in  the  above  ration, 
4  lbs.  of  corn  and  3  lbs.  of  barley.  (Corn  50c.  per  bu., 
56  lbs.  and  barley  50c.  per  bu.,  48  lbs.). 


208  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

2.  Find  the  cost  of  a  similar  ration  if  3  lbs.  of  corn 
were  replaced  with  3  lbs.  of  oil  meal,  making  the  grain 
ration  1  lb.  corn,  3  lbs.  oil  meal  and  3  lbs.  of  barley.  (Oil 
meal  costs  $35.00  per  ton.) 

3.  "What  is  the  entire  cost  of  the  last  ration  given, 
com  50c.  per  bu.,  barley  50c.  per  bu.,  clover  hay  $5  per 
ton  and  corn  stover  $3  per  ton? 

4.  Find  the  requirements  of  a  1200  lb.  cow,  giving 
35  Ibsi.  of  milk  testing  3.5%  fat. 

SUCCULENT  FOOD   FOR   DAIRY  COWS. 

Kind  of  Ration. — On  page  203  a  ration  was  suggested 
for  an  eleven  hundred  pound  dairy  cow  giving  15  pounds 
of  4  per  cent  milk.  This  ration  consisted  of  4  pounds  of 
corn  meal,  1  pound  bran,  12  pounds  clover  hay  and  10 
pounds  fodder  corn.  It  supplied  all  of  the  nutrients  in 
the  proportion  needed  by  the  cow,  and  if  the  cow  was 
made  comfortable  and  regularly  fed  and  milked,  she 
would  do  fairly  well.  Such  a  ration  is  more  economical 
and  will  give  better  returns  than  will  the  ordinary  ration 
of  timothy  or  wild  hay,  corn  stover  and  some  of  the  com- 
mon farm  grains,  as  barley  or  corn. 

Cows  Need  Succulent  Feed. — We  know  that  cows 
usually  give  the  largest  amount  of  milk  when  they  are 
in  good  pasture.  Their  chief  feed  is  then  green  grass. 
This  would  indicate  that  such  feed  is  better  for  milk 
production  than  are  the  dry  feeds  fed  in  winter.  Green 
feed  is  more  easily  digested  than  is  dry,  coarse  fodder, 
such  as  hay,  fodder  corn  and  corn  stover.  Moreover  less 
energy  is  required  to  digest  it,  it  tends  to  keep  the  body 
and  digestion  in  better  condition,  and  it  stimulates  the 
appetite.  We  know  this  from  our  own  experience.  In 
the  winter,  when  fresh  vegetables  are  scarce  and  we  eat 
potatoes,  bread  and  meat  for  a  long  time,  we  become 
tired  of  them  and  crave  for  something  succulent,  as  fruit 
and  green  vegetables.  In  well  regulated  homes  such  food 
is  supplied  by  canned  or  fresh  vegetables  and  fruits. 
The  barrel  of  apples  in  the  cellar  is  not  exceedingly  val- 
uable  from   the  standpoint   of   amount   of  nourishment 


SUCCULENT  FOOD  FOR  DAIRY  COWS. 


209 


contained.  The  great  value  of  the  apples  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  aid  in  toning  up  the  whole  system,  and  sat- 
isfy the  craving  for  something  succulent.  In  like  manner 
it  pays  to  supply  the  live  stock  on  the  farm  with  some- 
thing to  take  the  place  of  the  green  grass  they  get  in 
the  summer.    The  whole  ration  need  not  be  of  succulent 

material,  but  a  portion 
of  it  is  quite  essential 
to  best  results.  Just  as 
an  apple  or  two  each 
day  is  good  for  a  boy 
or  girl,  so  are  a  few 
pounds  of  succulent 
feed  (such  as  roots  or 
silage)  each  day  good 
for  farm  animals. 

Ensilage  is  one  of  the 
cheapest  succulient 
feeds  that  can  be  sup- 
plied to  farm  animals 
(luring  the  winter.  That 
is,  when  one  has  a  large 
herd  and  is  able  to 
build  the  silo  and  buy 
the  necessary  machin- 
ery for  handling  the 
crop.  It  is  good  feed, 
handy  to  feed  and  very 
much  relished  by  all 
classes  of  stock. 

Ensilage  is  usually 
corn,  (sometimes  other 
crops),  stored  green  in 
a  large  tank  called  a  silo.  The  silo  must  be 
air  tight  or  nearly  so,  as  the  green  feed  is  kept  from 
spoiling  by  keeping  the  air  away  from  it — ^just  as  berries 
are  kept  in  fruit  jars. 

Roots. — ^Another  way  by  which  succulent  feed  may 
be  supplied  is  by  raising  roots,  as  mangles,  rutabagas. 


:^m&m 


Fig.  84. — Filling  a  silo  at  University 
Farm.  Corn  is  cut  while  still 
green,  when  ears  are  well  g-lazed, 
hauled  directly,  cut  and  put  in  the 
silo.  Silage  does  not  spoil,  because 
air  is  kept  away  from  it.  It  Is 
still  green  and  succulent  when  fed. 


210  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

stock  carrots,  etc.  For  small  herds,  roots  are  cheaper 
than  ensilage,  as  no  expensive  machinery  or  storage  room 
is  required.  By  planting  roots  on  rich  land,  15  to  20 
tons  may  be  grown  per  acre.  One-half  to  two  acres  of 
roots  well  cared  for  will  supply  a  herd  of  from  8  to  12 
cows  with  the  succulent  feed  needed. 

Qiuestions : 

1.  Why  do  cows  usually  give  more  milk  in  summer 
than  in  winter? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  in  their  feed  in  summer 
and  winter? 

3.  What  do  animals  need  in  winter  in  addition  to 
dry  feed? 

4.  How  may  succulent  feed  be  supplied  to  animals 
in  winter? 

5.  To  what  conditions  is  ensilage  better  adapted  than 
mangles  ? 

6.  What  do  people  eat  in  winter  to  supply  succulent 
food? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  corn  contains  89%  dry  matter  and  mangels 
contain  9%  dry  matter,  how  many  pounds  of  mangels 
are  required  to  supply  as  much  dry  matter  as  is  supplied 
by  5  pounds  of  corn? 

2.  If  mangels  contain  9%  dry  matter,  how  many 
pounds  of  water  in  100  pounds  of  mangels? 

3.  If  mangels  yield  20  ton  per  acre,  how  many  tons 
of  dry  matter  are  produced  per  acre?  (Mangels  are 
9%  dry  matter). 

RATIONS  CONTAINING  SUCCULENT    FEED. 

Composition  of  Feeds. — To  intelligently  compound  ra- 
tions with  ensilage  or  roots  forming  a  part,  it  is  necessary 
to  know  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  the  vari- 
ous feeds  used.  The  following  table  gives  the  compo- 
sition of  the  feeds  used  in  the  two  rations  to  be  com« 
pounded. 


RATIONS    CONTAINING    SUCCULENT    FOOD.  211 

Digestible  nutrients  in  1  lb.  of  feed: 

Protein.     Carbohydrates.     Fat. 

Corn  meal 079  .67  .043 

Bran 129  .40  .034 

Clover  hay 068  .36  .017 

Fodder  corn 025  .35  .012 

Corn  silage OOa  .11  .007 

Mangels   Oil  .05  .001 

A  glance  at  the  above  table  will  show  that  a  pound 
of  corn  silage  contains  about  one-third  as  much  diges- 
tible nutrients  as  does  fodder  corn. 

This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ensilage  has  practical- 
ly as  much  water  in  it  as)  when  it  was  cut  green  in  the 
field,  while  the  fodder  corn  has  been  dried  out  (cured). 
In  other  words  3  pounds  of  green  com,  cut  and  shock- 
ed in  the  field,  will  dry  out  and  make  about  one  pound 
of  fodder  corn.  We  would  need,  then,  to  feed  about 
three  times  as  many  pounds  of  ensilage  as  of  fodder  com 
to  get  the  same  amount  of  nutrients.  But  ensilage  has 
the  additional  value  of  stimulating  digestion  and  keep- 
ing the  animal  in  a  good  healthy  condition. 

Ration  Containing  Ensilage. — The  ration  suggested 
on  page  203,  for  an  1100-pouiid  cow  giving  15  pounds 
of  4  per  cent  milk,  as  suggested,  consisted  of  4  pounds 
corn  meal,  1  pound  bran,  12  pounds  clover  hay  and  10 
pounds  fodder  corn.  This  supplied  approximately  the 
nutrients  needed  by  the  cow,  which  are  1.49  pounds  pro- 
tein, 11.15  pounds  carbohydrates  and  .35  pounds  fat. 

Ration,  Containing  Ensilage,  for  an  1100  Pound  Cow 
Giving  15  Pounds  of  4  Per  Cent  Milk. 

Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Fat. 

Corn  meal 4  lbs.         .316  2.67  .172 

Bran    1  lb.  .129  .40  .034 

Clover  hay   ....   12  lbs.         .816  4.30  .200 

Corn  silage  ....   30  lbs.         .270  3.40  .210 

Total  nutrients 1.531  10.77  .616 


212  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  above  ration  furnishes  ap- 
proximately the  nutrients  required.  It  differs  from  the 
ration  given  on  page  203  only  in  containing  30  pounds 
of  corn  ensilage  in  place  of  10  pounds  of  fodder  corn. 
So  far  as  nutrients  are  concerned,  there  is  very  little  dif- 
ference, but  a  cow  would  give  better  returns  on  this  ra- 
tion than  on  the  former,  owing  to  the  succulence  added 
by  the  ensilage,  which  makes  the  whole  ration  more 
palatable  and  more  easily  digested. 

Ration  Containing  Roots  for  an  1100-Pound  Cow 
Giving  15  Pounds  of  4  Per  Cent  Milk. 

Protein.       Carbohydrates.       Fat. 

Corn    4  lbs.        .316 

Bran    1  lb.  .129 

Clover  hay 10  lbs.        .68 

Mangels    20  lbs.        .220 

Fodder  com  ...     9  lbs.        .225 


2.67 

.172 

.40 

.034 

3.60 

.170 

1.10 

.02 

3.11 

.108 

Total  nutrients    1.570  10.88  .504 

It  will  be  seen  that  mangels  contain  a  little  more 
protein  than  does  ensilage,  but  very  much  less  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat.  They  do  not  provide  so  much  nutri- 
ents per  pound  as  does  the  ensilage,  but  are  a  little  more 
valuable  as  a  means  of  furnishing  succulence,  as  they 
are  sweet,  while  ensilage  is  more  or  less  sour. 

To  get  enough  carbohydrates  in  this  ration,  it  was 
necessary  to  add  some  fodder  corn.  A  ration  contain- 
ing both  clovei*  hay  and  fodder  corn  can  usually  be  bal- 
anced by  changing  the  proportion  of  these  two  feeds. 
Fodder  corn  is  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  clover  hay  is 
rich  in  protein. 

Questions : 

1.  How  do  fodder  corn  and  corn  silage  compare  in 
feeding  value? 


RATIONS  CONTAINING  SUCCULENT  FOOD.  213 

2.  For  what  reason  is  a  ration  containing  ensilage 
better  than  one  containing  only  cured  roughage? 

3.  In  what  respect  do  mangels  and  ensilage  differ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Find  the  daily  requirements  of  Pro.,  C.  H.,  and 
fat  for  a  1000-pound  cow  giving  20  pounds  of  4  per  cent 
milk.    See  page  201. 

2.  Find  the  amount  of  Pro.,  C.  H.,  and  fat  in  5 
pounds  of  corn  meal,  2  pounds  of  bran,  12  pounds  of 
clover  hay  and  9  pounds  of  fodder  corn.     (See  page  198.) 


Fig.  85. — A  load  of  mangels.  Mangels  may  be  grown  at  from  $1,60 
to  $2.00  per  ton.  They  are  a  very  valuable  addition  to  the  dry 
feeds  commonly  fed  in  winter,  as  they  are  palatable  and  succulent. 

3.  Find  the  amount  of  Pro.,  C.  H.,  and  fat  in  a  ra- 
tion the  same  as  the  above,  but  replace  the  9  pounds  of 
fodder  corn  with  27  pounds  of  corn  ensilage. 

4.  Find  the  amount  of  fodder  corn  and  mangels  re- 
quired to  furnish  about  the  same  amount  of  nutrient  as 
27  pounds  of  silage. 


214  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

HORSE  LABOR. 

Cost  of  Farm  Products. — A  very  considerable  item 
in  the  cost  of  producing  farm  products  is  horse  labor. 
When  one  owns  the  horses  used  on  the  farm,  it  may 
seem  that  horse  labor  costs  very  little,  but  a  careful 
consideration  of  facts  as  they  exist  will  convince  one 
that  the  cost  is  there  and  that  it  is  sufficiently  large  to 
be  worth  careful  consideration. 

If  one  hires  a  horse  for  several  days  and  must  pay 
75  cents  per  day  for  him,  he  may  think  he  is  paying  too 
much,  but  careful  accounts  show  that  the  actual  cost 
of  horse  labor  on  the  farm  is  about  8  cents  per  hour,  or 
80  cents  for  a  ten  hour  day,  even  when  the  horses  are 
owned  on  the  farm. 

The  Cost  of  Horse  Labor  has  been  determined  by  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  in  co-operation  wuth  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  keeping  accurate 
records  on  twenty-four  Minnesota  farms  for  six  years. 
These  records  show  that  the  total  cost  of  keeping  a  farm 
work-horse  for  a  year  averages  about  $84.00,  and  that 
the  average  number  of  hours  of  work  done  by  each  horse 
is  about  1000  per  year ;  making  the  cost  per  hour  of  work 
8.4  cents. 

To  one  who  has  given  the  matter  little  thought,  the 
above  figures  seem  high,  but  when  one  considers  that 
the  cost  of  a  horse  for  a  year  includes  several  items  it 
becomes  plain  that  the  figures  are  not  far  wrong.  The 
following  items  are  the  important  ones  in  the  cost  of 
keeping  a  horse :  feed,  labor  for  caring  for  him,  depre- 
ciation, interest  on  investment,  shelter,  shoeing,  and  de- 
preciation and  repair  on  harnesses.  While  it  is  not 
easy  to  figure  all  of  these  items  without  having  kept 
accurate  records  for  a  considerable  time,  yet  a  fairly 
accurate  estimate  may  be  made  by  noting  about  the 
amount  of  hay  and  grain  fed  per  day  in  winter  and  in 
summer,  and  its  value ;  the  amount  of  time  spent  each 
day  in  caring  for  the  horses;  the  value  of  the  horses  and 
on  this  value  figuring  the  interest  and  depreciation ;    and 


HORSES  ON  THE  FARM.  215 

cnen  adding  to  these  items  a  fairly  liberal  estimate  of  thf 
cost  of  shelter,  harnesses  and  shoeing.  Thei  total  amoum; 
will  no  doubt  be  a  surprise. 

The  cost  of  horse  labor  on  the  farm  may  be  reduced 
by  raising  more  horses  on  the  farm,  by  keeping  fewer 
work  horses,  by  economical  feeding  ajid  by  better  plan- 
ning of  the  work. 

Raising  More  Horses. — By  raising  more  horses  on  the 
farm,  most  ot  the  farm  work  may  be  done  with  mares 
that  raise  colts,  and  with  young  horses  before  they  are 
old  enough  to  sell  to  advantage.  In  this  way  the  horses 
will  be  doing  double  duty.  The  item  of  depreciation 
will  be  largely  eliminated;  also  a  part  of  the  cost  of 
feed,  because  at  least  a  portion  of  the  feed  fed  to  the 
mares  will  be  paid  for  out  of  the  value  of  the  colts. 

Fewer  horses  can  often  be  kept,  with  little  inconven- 
ience in  doing  the  farm  work.  When  one  realizes  that  it 
costs  $70  to  $90  per  year  to  keep  a  horse,  he  may  find 
that  often  an  extra  horse  may  be  hired  for  a  few  days, 
during  seeding  or  harvest,  cheaper  than  to  keep  one  a 
whole  year  when  it  is  really  needed  but  a  very  short  time. 

Distribution  of  Horse  Labor. — One  can  often  greatly 
reduce  the  demand  for  horse  labor  at  special  seasons, 
and  distribute  it  over  a  longer  season,  by  following  a 
diversified  system  of  farming.  If  a  part  of  the  farm 
is  seeded  to  grass  there  is  less  plowing  and  seeding  to 
be  done.  If  corn  is  raised  on  a  part  of  the  land,  instead 
of  seeding  it  all  to  grain,  the  seeding  and  harvesting 
periods  are  both  made  longer,  so  the  same  amount  of 
land  can  be  handled  with  less  horse  labor. 

Have  Plenty  of  Horses. — It  is  important,  however,  to 
have  plenty  of  good,  strong  horses  with  which  to  do  the 
farm  work,  because  with  good  horses  one  can  do  more 
work  in  a  day  than  with  poor  ones,  and  thus  save 
man  labor,  which  is  also  costly.  It  is  easier  to  keep  good 
hired  men  if  one  has  good  horses.  The  good  farm  man- 
ager will  consider  the  question  from  both  sides  and  act 
accordingly,  but  he  cannot  act  wisely  unless  he  knows 
all  the  facts. 


216  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Questions : 

1.  Name  some  of  the  items  that  must  be  considered 
in  determining  the  cost  of  keeping  a  farm  work  horse. 

2.  Give  four  ways  by  which  the  cost  of  horse  labor 
may  be  reduced  on  the  farm. 

3.  Give  at  least  two  reasons  why  plenty  of  good 
horses  should  be  kept  on  the  farm. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  horse  is  fed  2  qts.  of  oats  three  times  a  day 
half  the  year  and  4  qts.  three  times  per  day  for  the 
balance  of  the  year,  how  many  bushels  of  oats  will  he 
be  fed  in  a  year?  How  much  are  they  worth  at  35  cents 
per  bushel? 

2.  If  a  horse  is  fed  15  pounds  of  hay  per  day,  how 
many  tons  will  he  be  fed  in  a  year?  How  much  is  it 
worth  at  $6.00  per  ton? 

3.  If  a  man  spends  1  hour  per  day  caring  for  4 
horses,  how  much  time  will  he  spend  in  a  year?  How 
much  time  is  this  per  horse?  How  much  is  this  labor 
worth  at  14  cents  per  hour? 

FEEDING    HORSES. 

Feed  is  the  greatest  item  of  expense  in  keeping  a 
horse.  This  fact,  together  with  the  fact  that  there  are 
many  different  ways  of  feeding  and  kinds  of  feed,  makes 
it  evident  that  in  the  feeding  of  horses  is  a  great  op- 
portunity of  waste  or  saving.  The  average  cost  of  feed 
(hay  or  grain)  for  a  farm  work  horse  has  been  found  by- 
the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  to  be  about  $50.00 
per  year.  If  one  is  keeping  several  horses,  there  is  an 
expenditure  sufficiently  large  to  be  worthy  of  consid- 
eration. 

Use  of  Peed. — A  horse  requires  feed  to  maintain  his 
body,  to  replace  muscles  broken  down  by  work,  and  to 
supply  the  energy  necessary  to  perform  the  work. 

Concentrated  Food. — ^A  horse  has  but  one  stomach 
and  that  is  not  nearly  so  large  as  the  stomach  of  a  cow. 
On  this  account  a  horse  cannot  eat  as  much  roughage 


FEEDING  HORSES. 


217 


(hay  and  fodder)  as  a  cow  can,  and  must  have  a  larger 
proportion  of  concentrated  feed,  as  corn,  oats,  etc.  An- 
other reason  why  a  horse  needs  a  larger  proportion  of 
grain  than  do  cattle  is  that  they  have  not  as  mnch  time 
to  eat  as  cattle  have. 

A  horse  at 
work  is  busy  for 
about  ten  hours 
each  day.  You 
probably  h  a  y  e 
noticed  that  they 
spend  a  great 
deal  of  time  at 
night  eating. 
They  can  get 
much  more  nour- 
ishment in  a 
short  time  when 
eating  grain  than 
if  eating  hay. 
Four  pounds  of 
oats,  which  is  a 
fairly  good  feed  for  a  horse,  contains  .37  pounds  of  pro- 
tein, 1.89  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  .17  pounds  of  fat. 
Four  pounds  of  timothy  hay  contains  .11  pounds  of  pro- 
tein, 1.74  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  .06  pounds  of  fat. 
A  horse  can  eat  four  pounds  of  oats  in  ten  to  twenty 
minutes,  while  it  would  take  him  about  an  hour  to  eat 
four  pounds  of  hay. 

At  noon  a  work  horse  seldom  has  a  chance  to  eat 
as  much  as  he  wants,  but  if  he  has  a  good  feed  of  grain, 
he  can  come  more  nearly  getting  what  he  needs  than  if 
he  is  fed  only  hay. 

More  Grain  Than  Roughage. — ^For  the  reasons  given 
above,  a  good  ration  for  a  horse  at  heavy  work  must 
contain  more  grain  than  roughage  by  weight;  while  a 
good  ration  for  a  milch  cow  will  contain  fully  twice  as 
much  roughage  as  grain. 


Fig.  86.— Harvesting.  Horses  working  in  the 
harvest  field  need  concentrated  feed  at  noon 
especially  because  they  haven't  time  to  eat 
enough  hay. 


218  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Roughage  is  a  much  cheaper  form  of  feed  than  is 
grain.  For  example,  oats  at  32c.  per  bushel  cost  Ic.  per 
pound;  while  hay  at  $5.00  per  ton  costs  but  Ic.  for  four 
pounds.  The  above  prices  are  about  the  average  farm 
prices  for  these  feeds  for  the  last  ten  years. 

Since  a  horse  at  work  must  have  a  large  proportion 
of  grain,  it  is  very  important  that  one  try  to  feed  as 
cheap  a  form  of  grain  as  possible  and  get  the  desired 
results. 

Oats  and  Com. — The  favorite  feed  for  horses  is  oats 
and  timothy  hay.  The  average  cost  of  oats  per  pound 
for  the  past  ten  years  has  been  about  Ic.  per  pound; 
while  the  average  cost  of  shelled  corn  haf?  been  about 
2-3c.  per  pound.  The  grain  feed  alone  for  a  horse  costs 
about  $50.00  per  year.  If  corn  can  be  used  to  replaeo 
all,  or  a  part  of,  the  oats,  a  considerable  saving  can  be 
made. 

We  have  learned  that  there  are  two  general  classes 
of  feed;  nitrogenous  or  muscle  forming  feeds,  and  non- 
nitrogenous  or  fat  and  heat  forming  feeds.  Most  of  the 
common  farm  feeds  have  both  nitrogenous  matter  (pro- 
tein) and  non-nitrogenous  matter  (carbohydrates),  but 
the  proportion  of  these  compounds  varies. 

The  most  common  feeds  we  have,  that  have  a  com- 
paratively large  amount  of  protein,  are  bran,  oats,  clo- 
ver and  alfalfa  hay.  The  feeds  containing  large  quanti- 
ties of  carbohydrates  are  corn,  barley,  timothy  or  wild 
hay,  and  corn  fodder.  In  the  grain  feeds,  those  con- 
taining a  large  proportion  of  protein  are  more  expen- 
sive than  those  rich  in  carbohydrates ;  while  in  the  rough- 
age, clover  hay,  which  is  rich  in  protein,  is  cheaper  than 
timothy,  which  is  very  poor  in  protein.  These  facts 
make  it  evident  that  the  needed  protein  may  be  furnished 
in  roughage  more  cheaply  than  in  grain. 

Com  and  Clover  Hay. — If  corn  is  to  replace  oats  as 
•the  grain  feed  for  horses,  some  feed  rich  in  protein  must 
be  used  for  roughage.  Clover  is  the  cheapest  form  of 
roughage  that  can  be  produced  on  the  farm,  and  is  rich 
in  protein.     There  is  a  general  belief  among  horsemen 


FEEDING  HORSES.  219 

that  clover  hay  is  not  good  for  horses.  This  is  true  of 
poor  and  dusty  clover  hay ;  but  good,  bright,  v^rell  cured 
clover  hay,  fed  in  moderation,  is  a  very  good  kind  of  hay 
for  horses. 

Recent  experiments  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 
have  shown  that  horses  fed  mixed  timothy  and  clover 
hay,  kept  just  as  well,  were  able  to  do  just  as  much 
work  and  showed  just  as  good  spirit,  when  fed  corn  as 


Fig.  87. — A  field  of  alfalfa  hay  curing  under  canvas  caps.  Many  peo- 
ple who  are  anxious  to  get  a  good  quality  of  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 
cover  the  cocks  with  canvas  caps  to  protect  the  hay  from  dew 
and  rain. 

when  fed  oats,  and  that  a  pound  of  corn  on  the  cob 
was  worth  as  much  for  horse  feed  as  a  pound  of  oats. 
If  horses  can  be  fed  corn  and  clover  hay  without  detri- 
ment to  them,  the  cost  of  keeping  a  work  horse  can  be 
reduced  from  $10.00  to  $20.00  per  year.  This  is  worthy 
of  study  and  a  fair  trial. 
Questions: 

1.  Can  you  give  any  way  by  which  the  cost  of  feed 
for  a  horse  may  be  reduced  without  injury  to  the  horse? 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  relative  value  of  corn 
and  oats  as  feed  for  horses,  and  the  cost  per  pound  o.i 
each. 

3.  Compare  timothy  and  clover  hay  as  to  their  feed- 
ing value. 


220  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Arithmetic :  * 

1.  If  corn  is  worth  40c  per  bushel,  what  is  the  cost 
per  ton  of  shelled  corn  (56  lbs.  per  bushel)  ?  Of  ear  corn 
(72  lbs.  per  bushel)  ? 

2.  If  it  costs  $10.44  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  corn 
and  husk  it  from  the  standing  stalks,  what  does  it  cost 
to  produce  a  bushel  of  corn  when  it  yields  40  bushels 
per  acre?  How  much  does  such  corn  cost  per  ton  of 
shelled  corn?    Per  ton  of  ear  corn? 

3.  If  it  costs  $7.00  per  acre  to  produce  a  crop  of  2 
tons  of  clover,  how  much  does  it  cost  per  ton  to  produce 
clover  hay? 

FEEDING    HORSES   CONTINUED. 

A  Ration  for  any  animal  is  said  to  be  balanced  when 
it  supplies  in  the  right  proportion  the  nutrients  needed 
by  the  animal  to  maintain  its  body  and  to  perform  the 
work  it  is  expected  to  do.  It  is  very  important  to  know 
the  requirements  of  different  animals  and  the  composi- 
tion of  different  feeds,  so  one  can  combine  the  feeds  at 
hand  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  best  use  of  them. 
A  ration  is  figured  on  the  basis  of  what  an  animal  needs 
for  one  day. 

Requirements  of  a  Horse. — A  balanced  ration  for  a 
horse  at  hard  work  must  contain  digestible  nutrients  in 
approximately  the  following  amounts :  .18  lbs.  protein 
(Pro.),  1.2  lbs.  Carbohydrates  (C.  II.),  and  .05  lbs.  of 
fat,  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  of  horse.  Thus  a  horse 
weighing  1.000  lbs.  requires,  when  at  hard  labor,  1.80 
lbs.  of  Pro.,  12.0  lbs.  of  C.  H.  and  .5  lbs.  of  fat. 
Digestible  Nutrients  in  1  lb.  of  the  Common  Farm  Feeds. 
Grain  Feed.  Pro.      C.  H.      Fat. 

Com 079        .667        .043 

Barley    ,. . . .   .087        .656        .016 

Oats   092        .473        .042 

Bran 129        .401        .034 

Roughage. 

Tim.  Hay   028        .430        .014 

Slough  Hay   026        .420        .011 

Clover  Hay    068         .360        .017 

Oat  Straw    012        .386        .008 


FEEDING  HORSES.  221 

Combination  of  Feeds. — The  proper  combination  of 
the  feeds  requires  some  thought  and  some  figuring,  but 
is  a  work  that  should  be  done  on  every  farm  or  any- 
where that  horses  are  fed  grain.  Only  by  studying  the 
feeding  value  of  the  different  feeds,  and  their  prices,  can 
one  be  sure  he  is  feeding  his  horses  the  most  economical 
ration.  Sometimes  it  pays  one  to  sell  the  feeds  he  may 
havQ  on  hand  and  buy  others  in  which  the  nutrients  can 
be  obtained  more  cheaply.  As  the  market  prices  of  the 
different  feeds  are  changeable,  one  has  a  constantly  vary- 
ing problem.  The  wide  awake  feeder  always  has  some- 
thing to  think  about  that  is  worth  while. 

Rations  for  a  1,200  lb.  Horse  at  Heavy  Work. — A 
1,200  lb.  horse  at  heavy  work  requires  2.16  lbs.  of  Pro., 
14.40  lbs.  C.  H.,  and  .60  lbs.  of  fat. 

The  following  rations  will  approximately  supply  these 
requirements : 

Ration  No.  I 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat. 

Oats,   18  lbs 1.65  8.46  .75 

Timothy  Hay,  14  lbs 39  6.08  .19 

Total   Nutrients    2.04      14.54  .94 

Ration  No.  II 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat. 

Com,  15  lbs 1.18  10.00  .64 

Clover  Hay,  14  lbs 95  5.02  .24 

Total   Nutrients    2.13        15.02        .88 

Ration  No.  Ill 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat. 

Com,  10  lbs 79  6.69  .43 

Bran,  7  lbs 90  2.81  .24 

Tim.  Hay,  14  lbs 39  6.08  .19 

Total  Nutrients   2.08       15.58  .86 

Each  of  the  rations  given  above  supplies  approxi- 
mately  the   needed    amount    of    each    of   the    digestible 


222 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


nutrients,  also  nearly  the  same  amount  of  bulk.  One 
may  reasonably  conclude  that,  of  these  rations,  the  one 
that  can  be  most  cheaply  and  conveniently  supplied  will 
be  satisfactory.  A  little  figuring  will  convince  any  one 
that  there  is  a  considerable  saving  by  feeding  ration  No. 
II  over  feeding  No.  I,  and  that  usually  No.  Ill  will  be 
cheaper  than  No.  I. 

If  one  is  feeding  a 
heavy  ration,  as  one  of 
the  above,  the  grain 
should  be  reduced  con- 
siderably if  a  horse  is 
to  stand  idle  for  a  few 
days. 

A  change  of  feed  oc- 
casionally is  probably 
better  than  to  feed  con- 
tinually any  one  ration, 
as  an  animal  appreciates 
a  change  of  diet  fully  as 
much  as  a  man  does.  An 
occasional  feed  of  bran, 
when  horses  are  fed  tim- 
othy hay  and  oats,  is  a 
great  benefit  to  a  horse, 
as  it  aids  in  regulating 
his  bowels.  The  addition 
of  clover  hay  to  the  ra- 
tion cheapens  it,  and 
adds  greatly  to  its  value 
if  the  clover  hay  is  bright 
.?':'?_^^?_5°'?  and  well  cured.  Some 
feeders  are  prejudiced 
against  clover  hay  for 
horses,  but  good  clover  hay  fed  in  moderation  is  a  very 
desirable  kind  of  feed  for  them. 

Clover  hay  is  more  cheaply  grown  than  timothy  hay, 
because  it  yields  more  per  acre.  It  has  the  additional 
advantage  over  timothy  of  being  of  much  more  benefit 
to  the  land  on  which  it  is  grown. 


•  ■  •  -    •  -' -J 

h^^ 

....^ 

^Ik  .  k,f>- 

. 

:i 

^^£^m 

i 

mm 

mw^t 

"1^^ 

mpv^-                  ,  ?.^m 

,;■■ 

H^/ ^"^y 

hK?4 

*'^nSr*     V                        i*^^^ 

V^ 

?^^ 

v^»^ 

WM 

^^wi^^'^-'^S^m 

^^i* 

i 

*.0y^ 

^m 

•^          ■■■■       ': 

Fig.    88. — Corn   in   shock 

is  one  of  the  cheapest  feeds  grown 
(See  page  218.) 


FEEDING   HORSES    WHEN    IDLE.  223 

Questians : 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  a  balanced  ration? 

2.  State  the  requirement,  in  digestible  nutrients,  of  a 
horse  at  hard  labor. 

3.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  proper  combi- 
nation of  feeds  for  horses  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  oats  are  worth  35c  per  bu.  and  timothy  hay 
is  worth  $6.00  per  ton,  what  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  I? 

2.  If  corn  is  worth  40c  per  bu.  (56  lbs.)  and  clover 
hay  is  worth  $6.00  per  ton,  what  is  the  cost  of  Ration 
No.  II? 

3.  If  bran  is  worth  $24.00  per  ton,  corn  40c  per  bu., 
and  timothy  hay  $6.00  per  ton,  what  is  the  cost  of  Ra- 
tion No.  III? 

FEEDING    HORSES    WHEN     IDLE. 

Idle  Horses. — Farm  horses  are  idle  or  do  very  little 
work  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  and  when 
they  are  idle  one  can  greatly  reduce  the  amount  of  grain 
they  get  and  increase  their  allowance  of  hay.  They  do 
not  need  so  much  to  eat,  because  they  are  expending  very 
little  energy.  They  have  plenty  of  time  to  eat  roughage, 
and  as  roughage  is  cheaper  than  grain  it  cheapens  the 
ration  very  much  to  be  able  to  reduce  the  proportion  of 
graiu.  The  larger  amount  of  roughage  helps  to  satisfy 
the  horse  without  giving  him  more  nourishment  than 
he  needs. 

Maintenance. — All  that  a  mature  horse  needs  when 
idle  is  enough  to  maintain  his  body. 

This  is  called  a  maintenance  ration.  If  the  horse  is 
poor  when  the  fall  work  is  finished,  he  will  need  enough 
more  than  the  maintenance  ration  to  enable  him  to  add 
to  his  weight  the  amount  necessary  to  get  him  up  to  the 
desired  condition.  A  young  horse,  three  to  five  years 
old,  is  still  growing,  and  will  need  enough  more  than  a 
maintenance  ration  to  enable  him  to  supply  the  needs 
of  his  body  in  growing. 


224 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


There  is  always  some  team  work  to  do  on  the  farm 
in  the  winter;  and  if  several  horses  are  kept,  a  part  of 
them  may  be  used  for  the  winter's  work  and  fed  accord- 
ingly. The  rest  of  the  horses  should  be  kept  over  as 
cheaply  as  possible  and  yet  maintain  them  in  fair  con- 
dition. 

If  kept  comfortable,  horses  will  do  very  well  on  just 
hay,  preferably  clover,  and  corn  stalks.  If  it  is  desired 
to  increase  their  weight,  a  little  bundle  com  may  be 
fed  in  place  of  the  stalks.    Clover  hay  and  bundle  com 


Fig.   89. — A  good  team  of  farm  mares  at  work.     If  much  of  the  farm 
work  is  done  with  mares,  and  they  are  allowed  to  raise  colts,  the 
cost  of  horse  labor   can  be  materially  reduced. 

make   one   of  the   cheapest  farm  rations  for  wintering 
horses. 

Ration  of  Bundle  Com  and  Clover. — Corn  may  be 
grown,  cut,  shocked  and  hauled  in  from  the  field  for 
about  $10.00  per  acre.  If  it  yields  40  bu.  per  acre,  there 
will  be  2240  lbs.  of  corn  and  probably  about  3000  lbs.  of 
corn  stalks.  These  com  stalks  are  not  the  best  kind  of 
feed,  as  they  are  too  mature  to  be  easily  digested;  but 
they  add  bulk  to  a  ration.  Maintenance  requirements 
for  horses  have  not  been  so  carefully  worked  out  as  for 
cattle,  and  standards  vary  from  .06  to  .07  pounds  of  pro- 
tein and  .6  to   .7  pounds  of  carbohydrates  per  100  lbs. 


FEEDING   HORSES    WHEN    IDLE.  225 

live  weight  of  horse.  A  1200  ib.  horse  requires  when 
idle  about  .8  lb.  of  protein,  8  lb.  carbohydrates  and  .1  lb. 
of  fat.  The  following  combinations  of  common  farm  feeds 
will  be  found  to  supply  about  the  nutrients  needed. 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  lib.  of  Feed 

Pro.       C.  H.  Fat. 

Oats .092        .473  .042 

Corn 079        .667  .043 

Corn   stover    017         .328  .007 

Clover  Hay    068         .358  .017 

Timothy  Hay  '. . . .   .028        .434  .014 

Ration  No.  1 

Timothy  Hay,  15  lbs 42       7.01  .21 

Oats,  4  lbs 368     1.89  .168 

.788      8.90  .378 

Ration  Nb.  2 

Corn  stover,  15  lbs 255       4.92  .105 

Clover  hay  8  lbs 544      2.84  .136 

.799      7.76  .241 

Ration  No.  3 

Bundle  corn,  14  lbs 610      5.626  .314 

Mixed  hay,  8  lbs .384      3.168  .124 


.994      9.794      .438 


Ration  No.  1  represents  a  very  common  ration  for 
idle  horses.  This  ration  would  be  changed  very  little 
if  good  slough  hay  or  upland  hay  were  used  in  place  of 
the  timothy.  Ration  No.  2  is  a  little  cheaper  than  No.  1, 
and  will  give  good  results  if  both  the  stover  (corn  stalks 
from  which  ears  have  been  husked)  and  clover  are  good. 

Ration  No.  3  provides  more  nutrients  than  the  others, 
and  will  supply  the  needs  of  a  1200  lb.  horse  that  is 
growing  or  gaining  in  weight,  or  maintain  a  horse  that 
is  doing  some  light  work  about  the  farm,  as  hauling 
straw  or  manure  for  a  few  hours  occasionally.     It  is  as- 


226  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

sumed  that  14  lbs.  bundle  corn  contain  6  lbs.  of  corn 
and  8  lbs.  of  corn  stover,  and  that  the  mixed  hay  is  half 
clover  and  half  timothy. 
Questions : 

1.  Why  do  horses  require  less  when  idle  than  when 
at  work? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  maintenance  ration? 

3.  What  can  you  say  regarding  some  economical 
combinations  of  feed  for  idle  horses? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  What  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  1,  if  timothy  hay 
is  worth  $6.00  per  ton  and  oats  are  worth  35c  per  bu.? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  2,  if  corn  stover 
is  worth  $3.00  per  ton  and  clover  hay  is  worth  $6.00  per 
ton? 

3.  What  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  3,  if  bundle  corn 
costs  $4.00  per  ton  and  mixed  hay  is  worth  $6.00  per  ton? 

SHEEP. 

Place  on  the  Farm. — A  study  of  sheep,  their  nature 
and  habits,  indicates  that  they  may  be  worthy  of  more 
consideration  than  they  at  present  receive.  Sheep  are 
so  constituted  that  they  can  eat  and  thrive  on  a  diet 
consisting  chiefly  of  roughage.  In  this  respect  they  are 
similar  to  cattle  and  very  different  from  hogs.  Hogs 
have  a  comparatively  small  stomach,  and  the  greater 
portion  of  their  ration  must  be  grain. 

There  is  always  a  ready  market  for  grain,  though  as 
a  rule  it  is  not  well  to  make  a  practice  of  selling  a  great 
deal  of  grain  from  the  farm.  In  selling  grain  from  the 
farm  one  is  constantly  losing  fertility.  If  the  grain 
can  be  fed  and  the  live  stock  product  sold  for  as  much 
or  more  than  the  value  of  the  grain,  it  is  well  to  do  this, 
because  by  so  doing  most  of  the  fertility  contained  in 
the  grain  is  kept  on  the  farm  in  the  form  of  manure. 

Live  on  Waste  Products. — ^In  addition  to  the  grain 
produced  on  a  farm,  there  is  always  more  or  less  rough- 
age, as  straw,  corn  stalks,  hay ;  also  scattered  grain  in  the 
fields,  weeds,  etc.,  for  which  there  is  no  market.     It  is 


SHEEP. 


227 


therefore  without  value  unless  there  is  some  class  of 
stock  kept  that  can  eat  it.  Much  of  this  coarse  stuff  is  not 
suitable  for  dairy  cows.  Beef  cattle  can  use  such  feed, 
but  in  some  respects  sheep  are  more  likely  to  return  a 
profit  on  such  feed  than  are  beef  cattle.  First,  sheep 
produce  two  crops  each  year,  a  crop  of  wool  and  a 
crop  of  lambs.  In  many  cases  4he  crop  of  wool  is  suffi- 
cient to  pay  for  the  feed  for  a  sheep  during  the  entire 
year,  which  leaves  the  lamb  crop  clear.  Second,  a  lamb 
is  ready  for  market  when  from  6  months  to  1  year  old, 
while  a  calf  is  usually  unfit  for  sale  until  from  2  to  3 
years  old;  so  sheep  bring  quicker  returns. 

Require  Little  Labor. 
— Most  of  our  farms 
need  more  stock  than  is 
at  present  kept  on 
them.  Farm  labor  is  so 
scarce  that  it  seems  un- 
wise, on  the  average 
farm,  to  increase  the 
number  of  cows  kept, 
beyond  what  can  be 
cared  for,  if  necessary, 
by  the  family.  Sheep 
require  comparatively 
little  labor,  except  for  a 
short  time  during  the 
lambing  season.  Five 
to  seven  ewes  will  bring  in  about  as  much  income  in  a 
year  as  a  cow,  and  less  labor  is  required  to  care  for  them. 
In  view  of  these  facts,  the  live  stock  of  the  farm  may  often 
be  more  easily  and  more  profitably  increased  by  putting 
on  a  flock  of  from  20  to  70  ewes  than  by  adding  from  3 
to  10  cows  to  the  herd. 

Shelter. — ^Sheep  are  so  well  protected  by  their  wool 
that  they  need  very  little  or  no  protection  from  the  cold. 
They  should,  however,  be  kept  dry  and  have  a  place,  that 
is  free  from  draughts,  in  which  to  lie  down.  A  single 
board  or  straw  shed,  closed  tight  on  three  sides,  but  with 


Fig-.  90. — A  Shropshire  ram.  The 
Shropshire  is  a  very  popular  type  of 
sheep. 


228  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

the  other  side  partly  open  so  the  sheep  may  run  out 
and  in  at  will,  is  a  very  satisfactory  place  in  which  to 
keep  sheep.  If  lambs  are  to  come  during  the  cold  weath- 
er, warm  quarters  must  be  provided. 

Fencing  for  Sheep. — One  of  the  objectionable  fea- 
tures of  keeping  sheep  on  the  average  farm  is  the  diffi- 
culty of  fencing  them  in.  A  fence  that  can  be  built  for 
20  cents  to  25  cents  per  rod  is  satisfactory  for  cattle. 
A  much  closer  fence,  as  a  woven  wire  fence  or  a  narrow 
ribbon  of  woven  wire  with  one  or  more  barbed  wires 
above,  is  needed  for  sheep.  Such  a  fence  costs  45  to  60 
cents  per  rod.  However,  as  farms  are  more  intensively 
farmed,  more  and  better  fences  will  be  used,  and  then 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  sheep. 

Feeding  Sheep. — A  number  of  farmers,  who  have  not 
the  necessary  fencing  so  they  can  raise  sheep  to  advan- 
tage, have  gotten  some  of  the  benefits  of  having  sheep  on 
their  farms  by  buying  at  about  harvest  time  a  carload 
of  lambs,  or  as  many  as  they  can  handle  to  advantage, 
and  allowing  them  to  graze  over  their  stubble  and  corn 
fields  during  the  fall.  Such  sheep  are  in  fine  condition 
to  fatten  during  the  winter,  on  bundle  corn  or  other  cheap 
feed.  This  practice  has  enabled  these  farmers  to  pro- 
duce several  pounds  of  mutton  on  each  acre  of  land, 
after  it  has  produced  a  crop ;  to  make  their  land  cleaner 
and  richer ;  and  to  feed  on  the  farm,  at  a  profit,  products 
otherwise  of  little  or  no  value. 

Questions : 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  farm  products  that  may 
be  utilized  to  advantage  by  sheep,  but  are  of  little  or 
no  value  for  hogs  or  cows? 

2.  Compare  the  shelter  needed  for  sheep  vdth  the 
shelter  needed  for  dairy  cows. 

3.  What  can  you  say  about  fencing  for  sheep? 

4.  In  what  way  do  sheep  return  two  crops  each  year? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  A  farmer  buys  50  sheep  at  $4.50  each.  How  much 
do  they  cost  him? 


FEEDING  SHEEP.  229 

2.  When  shorn,  the  50  sheep  average  7^/2  lbs.  of 
wool  each.  How  many  pounds  of  wool  will  the  farmer 
have?  How  much  is  it  Avorth  at  24c  per  pound?  How 
much  is  the  wool  worth  per  sheep? 

3.  From  the  50  sheep  the  farmer  raises  45  lambs 
worth  $4.00  each.  How  much  are  the  lambs  worth? 
What  is  the  average  income  for  lambs  from  each  of  the 
50  sheep  ? 

FEEDING    SHEEP. 

Care  and  management  have  quite  as  much  to  do  with 
successful  sheep  husbandry  as  with  the  successful  man- 
agement of  any  kind  of  live  stock.  While  sheep  may  be 
able  to  live  with  less  attention  and  shelter  than  are  re- 
quired by  other  classes  of  live  stock,  they  will  not  prove 
profitable  unless  made  comfortable  and  given  attention 
when  needed. 

During  the  winter  the  flock  on  the  average  farm  con- 
sists chiefly  of  ewes  kept  over  winter  with  the  expecta- 
tion that  they  will  have  lambs  in  the  spring. 

Winter  Care  of  Breeding  Ewes.^ — Ewes  kept  on  good 
pasture  during  the  summer  and  fall,  are  usually  in  good 
flesh  by  the  time  they  are  put  in  winter  quarters.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  they  need  food  enough  to  maintain  their 
bodies,  to  provide  for  the  growth  of  wool  and  to  supply 
the  energy  needed  for  what  little  exercise  they  take 
about  the  shed  and  yards .  They  do  not  need  to  be  fed  as 
heavily  in  proportion  to  their  weight  as  cows  that  are 
giving  milk,  horses  that  are  working,  or  cattle,  sheep  or 
hogs  that  are  being  fattened. 

It  is  unwise  to  feed  ewes  any  ration  that  will  tend 
to  fatten  them.  They  should  be  fed  succulent  and  mus- 
cle-forming foods,  as  clover  hay,  corn  fodder,  roots ;  and 
if  fed  any  grain  it  should  be  of  the  kind  rich  in  protein, 
as  bran,  oats,  etc. 

To  properly  feed  sheep  is  as  much  of  a  problem  as 
to  properly  feed  other  kinds  of  stock.  If  sheep  are  not 
well  nourished,  they  will  lose  some  of  their  wool,  and  be 


230 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


weak  and  poor  in  the  spring.  If  breeding  ewes  are  fed 
too  much,  the  lambs  are  liable  to  come  weak  in  the  spring ; 
besides,  there  is  an  unnecessary  waste  of  feed. 

Rations  for  Breeding  Ewes. — Some  sheep  feeding 
work  done  by  the  Animal  Husbandry  Division  of  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  shows  that  with  the  com- 
mon and  cheap  farm  feeds,  breeding  ewes  may  be  win- 
tered with  excellent  results  and  very  cheaply. 


Fig.  91. — A  good  flock  of  breeding  ewes  gleaning  in  a  stubble  field. 
Tiiey  will  pick  up  all  heads  of  scattered  grain,  as  well  as  destroy 
many  troublesome  weeds. 


The  rations  given  below  show  the  amount  of  the  dif- 
ferent feeds  fed  per  day  per  100  pounds  live  weight  of 
sheep: 

Ration  No.  1. 

3.7  pounds    of  fodder  corn,  in  which  there  were  a  few 
nubbins  of  corn. 
Ration  No.  2. 

3.7  pounds  of  2d  crop  clover  hay. 


FEEDING    SHEEP.  231 

Ration  No.  3. 

1.5  pounds  2d  crop  clover  hay,  .1  pound  corn  fodder, 
and  .3  pounds  of  oats  and  corn,  equal  parts. 

Ration  No.  4. 

1.8  pounds  2d  crop  clover  hay,  1.5  pounds  roots,  and  .3 
pounds  of  shelled  corn. 
Ration  No.  5. 

2.6  pounds  of  fodder  corn,  1.5  pounds  roots,  and  .3 
pounds  of  oats  and  shelled  corn,  equal  parts. 

Ration  No.  6. 

2  pounds  oat  straw,  1.6  poundsi  roots,  .6  pounds  of 
bran  and  oats,  equal  parts. 

How  to  Feed  Above  Rations.  A  glance  at  the  above 
rations  gives  one  an  idea  that  it  would  be  impractical  to 
weigh  out  feed  so  carefully  to  each  sheep ;  which,  of  course, 
is  true.  To  feed  any  of  the  above  rations,  one  would  sim- 
ply need  to  know  the  number  of  ewes  to  be  fed,  and  their 
approximate  weight.  (The  average  ewe  will  weigh  be- 
tween 125  pounds  and  150  pounds.)  If  one  had  40  ewes 
weighing  140  pounds  each,  he  would  have  5,600  pounds  of 
sheep.  If  each  100  pounds  of  sheep  required  3.7  pounds 
of  clover  hay,  his  flock  would  require  56x3.7  pounds,  or 
207.2  pounds  of  clover  hay  per  day;  and  about  one-half 
of  this  amount  would  be  scattered  in  the  feeding  racks 
each  morning,  the  balance  in  the  evening. 

If  one  will  weigh  a  few  forkfuls  of  hay  occasionally, 
he  can  tell  very  closely,  without  weighing  every  time  he 
feeds,  about  how  much  hay  is  fed  each  time. 

If  one  is  to  feed  a  mixture  of  corn  and  oats,  equal 
parts,  he  would  simply  mix  together  one  or  more  hundred 
pounds  of  each ;  then,  by  weighing  a  few  measurefuls  of 
the  mixture,  he  can  tell  approximately  the  right  amount 
of  grain  to  feed  to  his  flock  without  weighing  the  grain 
each  time  he  feeds. 
Questions : 

1.  For  what  purposes  do  breeding  ewes  require  food 
during  the  winter? 


232  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

2.  What  are  the  results  of  over-feeding  breeding 
ewes?    Of  under*  feeding? 

3.  How  would  you  proceed  to  feed  a  flock  of  ewes, 
approximately  the  right  amount  of  feed? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  140  pound  ewe  200 
days,  on  ration  No.  1,  if  fodder  corn  is  worth  $5.00  per 
ton? 

2.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  140  pound  ewe  200 
days,  on  ration  No.  4,  if  clover  hay  is  worth  $5.00  per  ton, 
roots  $2.00  per  ton,  and  corn  and  oats  $20.00  per  ton? 

3.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  140  pound  ewe  200 
days,  on  ration  No.  6,  if  straw  is  worth  nothing,  roots  are 
worth  $2.00  per  ton,  and  oa,tsi  and  bran  are  worth  $24.00 
per  ton? 

SWINE. 

Profitable  Meat  Production. — Hogs  are  kept  on  nearly 
every  farm,  but  only  a  small  proportion  of  farmers  raise 
enough  hogs  to  make  pork  production  an  important 
factor  in  the  income  of  the  farm. 

Pork  production  is,  however,  a  very  important  enter- 
prise on  many  farms,  and  has  in  many  calses  proved  profit- 
able ;  in  fact  more  profitable  than  any  other  kind  of  meat 
production. 

Advantage  of  Hog  Raising. — Some  of  the  advantages 
of  pork  production  over  the  production  of  other  kinds  of 
meat  are :  First,  a  brood  sow  may  produce  from  four  to 
twenty  pigs  in  a  year.  On  this  account  the  cost  of  a  pig 
at  birth  is  less  in  proportion  than  the  cost  of  a  calf  or  a 
lamb.  Second,  the  fact  that  hogs  have  large  litters,  reach 
maturity  quickly  and  do  not  require  expensive  shelter, 
enables  one  to  get  started  in  raising  hogs  more  quickly 
and  with  less  expense  than  is  required  to  start  with  other 
kinds  of  live  stock.  Third,  less  labor  is  required  to  care 
for  hogs  than  to  care  for  enough  cattle  to  bring  in  the 
same  amount  of  money.     Fourth,  they  consume  and  con- 


SWINE.  233 

vert  into  valuable  products  the  wastes  and  slops  of  the 
farm. 

Disadvantages  of  Hog  Raising. — The  main  disadvant- 
ages of  hog  raising  are:  First,  hogs  are  not  able  to  use 
the  coarse  roughage,  as  corn  stover  and  straw,  that  is 
usually  found  on  the  farm,  hence  cannot  convert  these 
products  into  salable  form  as  can  sheep  and  cattle.  Sec- 
ond, their  chief  feed  must  be  gram,  at  least  for  fattening, 
and  grain  feed  is  more  expensive  than  roughage.  Third, 
they  are  more  likely  to  be  taken  off  in  large  numbers  by 
disease  than  are  other  classes  of  live  stock. 


Fig.  92. — Some  good  porkers  of  the  bacon  type. 

Possibilities. — ^Hogs  have  probably  been  the  means  of 
paying  off  more  mortgages  than  has  any  other  class  of 
stock.  A  young  man  wishing  to  make  a  start  on  the  farm 
can  well  afford  to  give  careful  attention  to  hogs  and  their 
possibilities  of  producing  a  profit. 

A  good  brood  sow  should  have  from  six  to  ten  pigs  at 
a  litter,  and  if  desired  may  have  two  litters  a  year.  Pigs, 
when  eight  months  old,  should  weigh  200  pounds  or  more. 
If  a  sow  produces  14  pigs  in  a  year,  and  each  pig  when 
eight  months  old  weighs  200  pounds,  she  would  produce 
2,800  pounds  of  pork  in  a  year,  which  at  5c  per  pound 
would  be  worth  $140.00. 

Hog  Cholera. — The  most  dangerous  disease  of  hogs  is 
hog  cholera,  and  it  has  caused  the  loss  of  millions  of 


234  AGRICULTURE   FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

dollars  worth  of  hogs  in  the  United  States.  Veterinar- 
ians have  now  discovered  a  method  by  which  it  is  possible 
to  vaccinate  hogs  and  prevent  their  having  cholera.  They 
vaccinate  in  much  the  same  manner  as  people  are  vacci- 
nated to  make  them  immune  to  small-pox.  This  vaccina- 
tion is  quite  expensive  and  facilities  for  proper  vaccina- 
tion are  not  ahvays  available,  so  it  is  well  to  take  every 
precaution  to  prevent  the  disease. 

Hog  cholera  is  a  contagious  disease.  That  is,  hogs  are 
very  lil^ely  to  take  the  disease  if  they  come  in  contact 
with  other  hogs  that  are  infected  with  it.  The  germs 
may  be  carried  from  one  pen  to  another,  or  from  one  farm, 
to  another,  on  one's  clothes,  by  dogs,  by  running  water  or 
by  any  other  method  by  which  particles  of  dust  or  disease 
germs  might  be  carried  about. 

Preventive  Measures. — If  hogs  are  kept  in  clean, 
healthful  quarters,  given  plenty  of  exercise,  and  fed,  ex- 
cept when  fattening,  enough  muscle-forming  food,  as 
clover  pasture,  clover  hay,  milk,  shorts,  etc.,  to  keep  them 
in  good,  vigorous  condition,  they  will  be  better  able  to 
resist  the  disease  than  if  they  are  kept  in  less  thrifty  con- 
dition. If  cholera  breaks  out  in  the  community,  one 
should  use  every  precaution  to  prevent  the  germs  being 
brought  onto  the  farm ;  and  if  it  gets  very  close  it  is  well 
to  dispose  of  all  the  hogs  that  are  fit  to  sell.  If  this  can- 
not be  done,  often  the  loss  may  be  greatly  reduced  by  sepr 
arating  the  hogs  into  several  bunches  and  keeping  them 
considerable  distances  apart. 

Questions: 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  pork  pro- 
duction over  the  production  of  other  classes  of  meat? 
What  are  some  of  the  disadvantages? 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  possibilities  of  pork  pro- 
duction? 

3.  Tell  all  you  can  about  hog  cholera. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  a  hog  weighing  225  pounds 
at  5%c  per  pound? 


THE  BROOD  SOW.  235 

2.  A  SOW  has  7  pigs  in  a  litter.  When  8  months  old 
the  pigs  weigh  200  pounds  each.  What  is  the;  weight  of 
all?    How  much  are  they  worth  at  S^e  per  pound? 

3.  If  a  bushel  of  com  will  produce  10  pounds  of 
pork,  how  much  will  the  feed  for  the  production  of  a 
j)0und  of  pork  cost,  if  corn  is  worth  35c  per  bushel? 

THE    BROOD    SOW. 

The  Brood  Sow  and  her  care  and  feed  determine  the 
cost  of  pigs  at  birth.  In  the  first  place  a  sow  of  good 
type,  and  of  the  breed  desired,  should  be  selected.    If  sev- 


Fig.  9. — A  Sow  with  Nine  Pigs.  One  of  the  essentials  of  cheap 
pork  production  is  a  low  cost  of  pigs  at  birth.  Large  litters 
reduce  the  cost  per  pig. 

eral  litters  of  pigs  are  raised,  it  is  well  to  halve  some 
method  of  marking  the  young  pigs,  so  that  when  they  are 
grown  one  can  tell  from  which  litter  they  came.  It  is 
desirable  to  have  brood  sows  that  will  have  large  litters 
of  pigs;  and  if  one  selects  his  brood  sows  from  a  large 
litter  he  is  more  liable  to  get  a  good  number  of  pigs 
from  each  sow  than  if  he  selects  his  sows  from  a  bunch 
of  hogs  without  regard  to  whether  they  came  from  large 
litters  or  not. 

If  one  does  not  mark  his  pigs  at  birth,  he  is  very  liable 


236 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


to  select  his  young  sows  from  small  litters,  because  the 
sows  with  small  litters  feed  their  pigs  a  little  better,  and 
as  a,  consequence  the  pigs  are  usually  a  little  fatter  and 
better  looking  than  the  pigs  from  large  litters. 

Care  of  the  Brood  Sows. — The  brood  sow  should  have 
plenty  of  succulent  and  muscle-forming  food,  but  should 
not  be  over-fed.  She  should  have  at  all  times  plenty  of 
exercise.  It  is  a  mistake  to  allow  brood  sows  to  run  dur- 
ing the  fall  with  the  hogs  that  are  being  fattened.  It  is 
a  waste  of  feed,  and  the  sows  are  injured  if  allowed  to 
get  too  fat.  During  the  fall  the  brood  sows  should  have 
the  run  of  a  good  pasture,  with  only  enough  grain  to  keep 
them  in  good  thrifty  condition. 


Fig.  94. — ^Hog-  cots.  A  very  cheap  and  convenient  shelter  for  hogs. 
These  cots  may  be  moved  to  the  field  during  the  pasturing  sea- 
son and  back  to  the  yard  and  banked  up  for  winter. 

Shelter. — If  only  one  litter  of  pigs  is  to  be  raised  from 
each  sow  each  year,  it  is  well  to  have  them  come  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  the  weather  is  warm.  If  this  is  done,  no 
expensive  shelter  is  needed.  A  small  cot  (movable 
house)  well  banked,  or  a  straw  shed,  is  ample  for  the  sow 
during  the  winter;  and  in  summer  all  that  is  needed  is 
shelter  to  keep  the  pigs  dry  and  to  protect  them  from  the 
sun.  If  cots  are  used  they  may  be  moved  to  the  pasture 
for  summer  shelter. 

If  one  is  going  to  raise  two  litters  of  pigs  from  a 
brood  sow  in  a  year,  good  warm  quarters  must  be  pro- 
vided.    These  quarters  need  not  be  expensive,  but  they 


THE  BROOD  SOW. 


237 


should  be  convenient  and  so  constructed  that  the  hogs 

may  be  kept  comfortable. 

Feeding  the  Brood  Sow. — It  is  very  easy  to  over-feed 

a  brood  sow  in  winter.     If  she  has  raised  two  litters  of 

pigs  during  the  year,  so  she 
is  likely  to  he  thin  in  the  fall, 
she  will  need  considerable 
feed  until  she  begins  to  fat- 
ten up  a  little.  If  she  ha)s 
raised  but  one  litter,  which 
is  the  practice  on  most  farms, 
she  will  have  had  the  whole 
fall  to  fatten  up,  and  very 
little  grain  is  necessary  or 
desirable  during  the  winter. 
Bulky  Peed. — If  only  one 
or  two  sows  are  kept,  the 
slops  from  the  house  furnish 
an  excellent  form  of  bulky 
feed,  which  helps  to  satisfy 
their  appetites,  but  really 
contains  little  nutriment.  If 
a  large  number  of  sows  are 
kept,  the  slops  from  the 
house  do  not  go  very  far,  and 
one  is  liable  to  feed  them 
more  grain,  to  keep  them 
from  squealing,  than  they 
really  need.  If  supplied  with 
good  clover  hay,  hogs  will 
soon  learn  to  eat  considerable 
of  it ;  a!nd  this  furnishes  the 
bulk  they  need  and  some 
nourishment,  so  they  do  not 
need  so  much  grain  to  satisfy 
them.  Roots  are  an  excellent 
form  of  feed  for  brood  sows. 

As  they  are  succulent,  they  aid  in  digestion,  supply  bulk 

and  variety,  and  tone  up  the  system. 


m 

1 

X 

^ 

kx??  ;  ■->>-, ,^4:  '>:^  :^ 

i 

Fig-.  95. — Pi;?s  in  clover.  Clo- 
ver is  the  cheapest  and  best 
summer  feed  for  growing  pigs. 
Pigs  should  have  some  grain 
and  milk  in  addition  to  clover 
pasture. 


238  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Suggested  Rations. — The  following  grain  mixtures 
have  been  fed  to  brood  sows,  in  addition  to  clover  hay, 
with  very  satisfactory  results : 

1.  Shorts  1  part,  corn  3  parts  (by  weight). 

2.  Oil  cake,  1  part,  corn  7  parts  (by  weight). 
About  %  pounds  of  either  of  these  mixtures  per  day, 

per  100  lbs.  live  weight  of  hog,  is  sufficient  if  enough 
bulky  food,  as  hay  or  roots,  is  fed  to  satisfy  the  appetite 
of  the  sow. 
Questions: 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  points  worth  considering 
in  the  selection  of  a  brood  sow? 

2.  What  can  you  say  concerning  the  care  and  shelter 
of  brood  sow^s? 

3.  Why  is  one  liable  to  over-feed  brood  sows? 

4.  In  what  way  may  the  tendency  to  over-feed  brood 
sows  be  overcome? 

5.  How  much  grain  does  a  brood  sow  need  per  day 
per  100  lbs.  live  weight? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  sow  weighs  350  lbs.  and  requires  %  lbs.  of 
grain  per  day  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  how  much  grain 
should  she  receive  per  day? 

2.  If  it  costs  $10  per  year  to  keep  a  brood  sow,  what 
is  the  average  cost  per  pig  at  birth,  if  she  raises  five  pigs  ? 
If  she  raises  eight  pigs? 

3.  If  100  lbs.  of  shorts  worth  $20  per  ton  and  300  lbs. 
of  corn  worth  42c.  per  bu.  (56  lbs.)  are  mixed  together, 
how  many  pounds  of  feed  will  there  be  in  the  mixture? 
What  is  the  average  price  per  pound?  If  a  400  lb.  sow  is 
fed  %  lb.  of  the  mixture  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  how 
much  will  her  grain  ration  cost  per  day? 

CARE   OF   THE   GROWING   PIGS. 

Requirements. — The  first  requirement  of  young  pigs 
is  that  they  have  a  clean,  dry,  comfortable  bed  in  which 
to  arrive.  As  the  mother  is  naturally  in  a  feverish  con- 
dition at  this  time,  she  may  be  somewhat  careless  and  lay 


CARE  OP  THE  GROWING  PIGS.  239 

on  the  little  pigs.  To  prevent  this,  a  shelf  ten  or  twelve 
inches  wide  and  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  floor  should 
be  built  around  the  pen,  so  as  to  make  room  for  the  pigs 
to  get  out  of  the  way  of  their  mother.  This  is  a  very- 
simple  precaution,  and  may  save  a  number  of  pigs. 

Mother's  Milk.— The  very  best  feed  for  young  pigs 
for  the  flrst  few  weeks  is  the  dam's  milk.  If  the  sow 
has  been  well  cared  for  previous  to  farrowing  and  is 
liberally  fed  after  farrowing,  she  will,  if  she  is  the  right 
kind  of  a  mother,  give  a  liberal  amount  of  milk.  At 
two  or  three  weeks  of  age  the  young  pigs  begin  to  de- 
velop a  desire  for  something  besides  their  mother's  milk. 
Provision  should  be  made  to  feed  them  some  light  but 
muscle-forming  food,  as  skimmed  milk  with  a  little  meal 
added. 

A  Creep. — To  feed  the  small  pigs  so  that  the  sow  can- 
not bother  them,  it  is  well  to  have  a  small  yard  or  pen 
fenced  off  in  the  yard  or  pen  in  which  the  sow  is  kept, 
but  have  the  fence  raised  high  enough  from  the  ground 
so  that  the  little  .pigs  can  paiss  back  and  forth  easily,  but 
low  enough  to  keep  out  the  old  sow.  In  this  place  plenty 
of  trough  room  should  be  provided,  so  every  pig  has  a 
chance  to  eat,  otherwise  the  larger,  stronger  pigs  will 
get  most  of  the  feed  and  the  smaller  ones  will  not  get 
enough. 

Clean  Feed. — Only  clean,  wholesome  feed  should  be 
fed  to  the  small  pigs,  and  the  trough  in  which  they  are 
fed  should  be  kept  clean ;  because  their  digestion  is  easily 
deranged  and  a  pig  is  valuable  only  when  his  digestion  is 
good.  No  feed  should  be  left  in  the  trough  from  one 
feeding  time  to  the  next.  This  is  most  easily  accom- 
plished by  being  careful  to  feed  only  as  much  as  the  pigs 
can  eat  up  clean. 

Keep  Pigs  Growing. — The  aim  in  feeding  young  pigs 
should  be  to  keep  them  growing  every  day;  and  since 
their  capacity  to  make  use  of  feed  determines  their  use- 
fulness it  is  well  to  so  feed  them  as  to  strengthen  and 
develop  this  capacity.     Bulky  feeds  containing  a  good 


240  AGRICULTURE   FOR  YOUNG   FOLKS. 

proportion  of  muscle-forming  feed,  as  milk,  milk  and 
shorts,  clover  pasture,  etc.,  are  very  good  kinds  of  feed 
for  young  pigs. 

Summer  Feed. — If  but  one  litter  of  pigs  is  raised  per 
year,  which  is  the  Uisual  practice,  they  should  come  in 
the  spring  and  can  be  raised  on  pasture.  Pasture  fur- 
nishes the  cheapest  feed  on  the  farm,  as  well  as  one  of  the 
best  kinds  of  feed.  It  has  been  the  common,  practice  to 
keep  pigs  in  small  pens  and  feed  them  grain  and  slops. 
This  practice  is  undesirable  for  several  reasons.  It  is 
an  expensive  method  of  keeping  hogs,  both  in  labor  and 
in  feed.  It  does  not  provide  the  exercise  necessary  for 
the  best  development  of  growing  pigs  or  breeding  stock. 
Last  but  not  least,  it  is  difficult  to  find  any  kind  of  feed 
so  well  adapted  to  the  growing  pig  as  good  clover  pas- 
ture, supplemented  with  milk  from  the  sow,  skimmed 
milk  and  good,  clean  slops  thickened  with  shorts  or  other 
muscle-forming  food. 

Pasture. — Eed  clover  furnishes  very  cheap  pasture, 
because  the  seed  is  sown  with  the  preceding  grain  crop 
and  no  plowing  or  preparation  of  the  land  is  necessary 
for  the  clover.  Hogs  like  young  and  succulent  pasture; 
and  as  clover  grows  very  rapidly  during  the  early  part 
of  the  summer,  and  the  young  pigs  do  not  eat  as  much 
as  they  will  later,  the  clover,  if  the  pasture  is  large 
enough,  usually  gets  ahead  of  them.  To  avoid  this  diffi- 
culty it  is  well'  to  cut  with  a  mower  a  small  strip  of  the 
clover  next  to  the  pens,  early  in  June.  This  part  will 
start  up  soon  and  furnish  the  best  kind  of  pasture.  The 
balance  of  the  pasture  may  be  cut  for  hay  the  latter  part 
of  June.  Then  the  second  crop  will  come  on,  and  the 
hogs  will  be  larger  and  need  more  feed  than  earlier,  and 
will  likely  keep  pace  with  the  growing  clover. 

Rape,  rye,  field  peas  or  any  of  the  grain  crops 
furnish  good  annual  pasture  for  hogs,  if  for  any  reason 
one  has  not  the  clover.  Blue  gralss  and  white  clover,  or 
bromus  and  white  clover,  make  very  good  permanent 
pastures  if  it  seems  undesirable  to  rotate  the  crops  and 
thus  supply  clover  pasture. 


FATTENING   HOGS  .ECONOMICALLY.  241 

Fencing  is  the  most  expensive  part  of  furnishing 
pasture  for  hogs,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  cheaper  than  the 
labor  of  caring  for  and  carrying  feed  to  the  hogs  would 
be.  The  cost  of  fencing  may  be  reduced  by  having  com- 
paratively large,  well-shaped  fields,  and  by  planning  for 
them  a  rotation  that  will  furnish  the  maximum  amount  of 
feed.  A  four  year  rotation,  of  1st  year  grain,  2nd  year 
clover,  3rd  and  4th  years  corn,  on  four  fenced  fields  of 
uniform  size,  is  very  satisfactory.  One  of  the  four  fields 
would  be  in  grain,  one  in  clover  and  two  in  corn,  each 
year;  the  clover  and  the  two  corn  crops  to  be  fed  off  by 
the  hogs. 

Weaning  Pigs. — If  but  one  litter  of  pigs  is  raised  per 
year,  they  may  be  allowed  to  run  with  their  mother  until 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  weeks  old,  or  even  longer,  until 
the  sow  begins  to  wean  the  pigs  herself.  If  the  young 
pigs  are  given  a  chance  to  learn  to  eat  as  suggested  above, 
they  may  be  weaned  with  very  little  difficulty  at  any  time 
after  they  are  six  weeks  old.  If  the  sow  is  doing  well,  it 
is  usually  better  to  leave  the  pigs  with  her  until  they 
are  about  twelve  weeks  old. 

Questions : 

1.  How  may  young  pigs  be  fed  so  they  will  not  be 
bothered  by  their  mother  ? 

2.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  summer  feed  for  hogs^ 
and  how  supplied? 

3.  In  what  way  can  the  cost  of  fencing  for  hogs  be 
reduced? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  Vo  a,cre  of  clover  pasture  is  required  for  a  sow 
and  eight  pigs,  how  many  acres  are  required  for  six  sows 
with  litters? 

2.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  20  rods  by  24 
rods  in  size  ?  How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to 
enclose  it?  How  many  rods  of  fencing  per  acre?  What 
would  the  fencing  cost  per  acre  at  50  cents  per  rod  of 
fencing  ? 

3.  If  it  costs  $15.00  per  acre  to  fence  a  field,  what  is 


242 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


the  annual  cost  ot*  the  fence  if  it  lasts  ten  years  and 
interest  is  charged  at  the  rate  of  four  per  cent?  (Ans. : 
1-10  of  $15.00  and  int.  on  $15.00.) 


FATTENING  HOGS  ECONOMICALLY. 

To  Fatten  Hogs  it  is  simply  necessary  to  supply  them 
with  plenty  of  food,  as  they  usually  have  a  good  appe- 
tite and  are  not  easily  injured  by  over-feeding.  It  is 
wise,  however,  to  change  them  from  one  kind  of  feed 


to  another  gradually 
all  they  will  take. 


that  IS,  where  they  are  being  fed 


Fig.   96. — ^Hogs  Helping  Themselves  to  the  Corn   Crop. 


The  majority  of  hogs  are  fattened  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter;  and  on  that  account  we  will  suggest  some 
of  the  better  methods  practiced  in  fall  fattening. 

Labor. — A  very  common  practice  followed  in  fatten- 
ing hogs  is  to  shut  them  up  in  a  small  yard  and  feed 
them  generously.  This  practice,  however,  is  no  longer 
considered  desirable,  as  the  animals  are  not  kept  in  the 
most  ragged  condition  by  being  confined  too  closely ;  they 


FATTENING   HOGS   ECONOMICALLY.  243 

are  more  likely  to  become  diseased,  and  a  great  deal  of 
labor  is  necessary  to  feed  and  care  for  them  when  closely 
confined.  Labor  is  one  of  the  very  important  items  in  the 
cost  of  pork  production,  and  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  reduce  the  necessary  labor  to  the  minimum. 

Early  Fall  Feed.— During  the  early  part  of  the  fat- 
tening season  considerable  green  and  succulent  feed 
can  be  fed  to  advantage.  This  feed  is  very  easily  sup- 
plied by  raising  a  patch  of  pumpkins  near  the  hog  pas- 
ture, where  the  pumpkins  can  be  easily  thrown  over  the 
fence  to  the  hogs.  Plenty  of  good  pasture  is  also  de- 
sirable at  this  time,  and  it  maly  be  supplied  in  any  way 
most  convenient. 

Field  Peas. — During  the  first  part  of  the  fattening 
period  the  pigs  will  make  considerable  growth;  so  some 
muscle-forming  feed  is  desirable  as  a  part  of  the  ration, 
rather  than  an  exclusive  corn  diet.  A  small  field  of 
field  peas,  so  situated  that  they  may  be  harvested  by  the 
hogs  when  ripe  by  turning  the  hogs  into  the  field,  fur- 
nishes the  hogs  an.  excellent  start  at  very  little  expendi- 
ture of  labor.  The  peas  are  sown  very  early  in  the 
spring,  at  the  rate  of  3  bu.  of  seed  per  acre,  and  nothing 
more  is  done  to  them  until  the  hogs  are  turned  in. 

Corn. — After  the  peas  have  been  fed  off,  or  as  soon 
as  the  corn  is  ripe  if  one  has  no  peas,  the  hogs  may  be 
turned  into  a  portion  of  the  com  field  and  allowed  to 
help  themselves.  If  some  green  feed  is  provided  by 
sowing  rye  or  rape  in  the  com,  at  the  time  it  was  cul- 
tivated last,  a  large  amount  of  green  feed  will  be  sup- 
plied at  very  small  cost,  and  will  be  relished  by  the  hogs 
in  connection  with  the   com. 

It  costs  only  about  half  as  much  to  grow  a  crop  of 
corn  up  to  the  time  it  is  ripe,  as  to  raise,  cut,  husk 
and  feed  it.  In  other  words  it  costs  about  $5.00  per  acre 
to  cut,  shock  and  husk  one  acre  of  corn,  and  by  allowing 
the  hogs  to  harvest  the  crop  themselves  this  cost  is 
saved.  Of  course  the  field  must  be  fenced,  but  if  regu- 
lar fields  are  provided  near  the  house,  on  which  to  radse 
pasture  peas  and  corn  for  the  hogs,  and  these  fields  are 


244 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


permanently  fenced,  the  cost  of  fencing  is  not  a  very 
large  item. 

Not  all  of  the  corn  raised  would  be  fed  off,  for  it  is 
not  well  to  have  the  hogs  in  the  field  after  snow  and 
cold  weather  come.  Six  or  eight  pigs  five  to  seven 
months  old  will  ordinarily  clean  up  an  acre  of  average 
com  during  the  fall. 

Waste  by  Hogging  Crops. — Allowing  hogs  to  help 
themselves  to  a  crop  is  called  "hogging  oft'  the  crop." 
It  is  generally  considered  that  this  practice  is  very 
wasteful — that  the  hogs  trample  down  and  waste  a  great 
deal  of  the  crop.  There  is,  however,  very  little  of  the 
crop  wasted  if  the  hogs  are  turned  into  a  small  patch 
(sufficient  to  last  them  two  or  three  weeks)   at  a  time. 


^"riiiiagii'ii>*iir 


^^Xf^5^i^ 


"^^■WtlM 


mm^ 


Fig.  97. — ^Hogs  in  rape.  Rape  is  one  of  the  good  pasture  crops.  The 
seed  is  cheap,  and  it  may  be  sown  six  to  eight  weeks  before  the 
pasture  is  needed. 


Kesults  obtained  by  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, and  by  a  large  number  of  practical  farmers,  show 
that  an  acre  of  corn  will  make  fully  as  much  and  often 
more  pork,  where  hogs  are  allowed  to  help  themselves, 
than  where  the  com  is  husked  and  fed  to  the  hogs  in  a 
yard. 

At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  one  lot  of  hogs 
was  turned  into  a  field  of  corn,  and  another  similar  lot 
was  shut  in  a  yard  and  fed  husked  corn.  It  was  found 
that  the  hogs  in  the  field  required  7.35  lbs.  of  grain  to 
make  a  pound  gain,  while  those  in  the  yard  required  8.59 
lbs.  of  grain  to  make  a  pound  of  gain. 


FATTENING   HOGS   ECONOMICALLY.  245 

Comfort. — In  fattening  any  kind  of  stock,  comfort 
is  an  important  factor,  and  one  who  overlooks  it  is  a 
loser  thereby.  If  hogs  are  fed  in  the  field,  a  good  soft 
and  dry  bed  should  be  provided  for  them  or  they  w^ill 
not  do  their  best,  and  they  should  always  have  a  supply 
of  fresh  water.  The  saime  is  true  if  they  are  kept  in  the 
yard.  Some  feeders  claim,  and -with  good  reason  too, 
that  an  armful  of  straw  may  often  be  as  valuable  to 
a  bunch  of  hogs  as  a  bushel  of  corn. 

Arrangement  of  Fields. — Four  fields  adjoining  the 
fa'rmstead,  each  ^/2.  acre  to  one  acre  in  size,  for  each  brood 
sow  kept  on  the  farm,  make  it  possible  to  produce  both 
summer  and  fall  feed  for  hogs  very  cheaply.  Each  year 
one  field  would  be  sown  to  grain  and  red  clover  seed,  and 
another  field  would  be  in  pasture,  and  the  other  two  in 
corn.  Such  rotation  once  established  would  supply 
an  abundance  of  cheap  feed  and  with  the  minimum 
amount  of  labor. 
Questions. 

1.  In  what  ways  may  we  reduce  the  amount  of  labor 
necessary   in   caring   for   fattening   hogs? 

2.  Of  Avhat  use  are  field  peas  as  a  feed  for  hogs? 

3.  What  can  you  say  regarding  "hogging  ofjp  corn?" 

4.  What  arrangement  of  fields  tends  to  reduce  the 
labor  necessary  to  grow  hogs? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  it  costs  $1.25  to  plow  an  acre  of  land,  50  cents 
to  harrow  it  3  times,  25  cents  to  plant  it,  $1.60  to  cultivate 
it  4  times,  and  60  cents  to  manure  it,  25  cents  for  seed,  and 
$3.00  for  rent,  how  much  does  it  cost  to  raise  an  acre  of 
com? 

2.  If  it  costs  $7.50  to  raise  an  acre  of  corn,  and  $2.00 
annually  to  fence  it,  how  much  does  it  cost  per  acre? 
How  much  does  the  corn  cost  per  bu.  if  it  yields  40  bu. 
per  acre? 

3.  If  it  requires  8  pounds  of  ear  corn  to  make  one 
pound  of  pork,  how  many  pounds?  of  pork  wall  40 
bushels  of  ear  corn  make?  (72  lbs.  per  bu.)  How  much 
will  the  pork  made  from  40  bushels  of  com  be  worth  at 
5  cents  per  lb.  ? 


CHAPTER  X. 
POULTRY. 

POULTRY    ON    THE    FARM. 

Importance  of  Poultry  Industry. — Many  people  con- 
sider that  raising  poultry  is  a  small  business,  hardly 
worthy  of  a  man 's  time,  and  that  a  few  chickens  are  good 
simply  as  a  pastime  for  people  who  live  in  town,  or  as  a 
source  of  pin  money  for  women  on  farms. 

It  is  true  that  the  greater  part  of  the  poultry  raised  is 
raised  in  just  this  way,  but  in  spite  of  this  fact,  poultry 
brings  to  the  farms  of  the  northwest  many  millions  of  dol- 
lars annually.  In  fact,  the  poultry  product  of  the  United 
States  is  greater  than  the  dairy  product.     In  many  dairy 


Fig.  98. — The  whole  family  in  the  poultry  yard. 

communities,  where  creameries  ship  out  twenty  to  fifty 
thousand  dollars  worth  of  butter  a  year,  the  poultry  and 
eggs  sold  bring  in  as  much,  and  in  some  cases  more,  than 
the  butter. 

Poultry  RecordjS. — The  Minnesota  Experiment  Station 
has  been  gathering  very  accurate  statistics  for  several 


POULTRY  ON   THE   FARM.  247 

years,  on  ei^'ht  average  farms  in  each  of  three  counties  in 
Minnesota,  namely,  at  Halstad,  Norman  Co.;  Marshall, 
Lyon  Co. ;  and  Northfield,  Rice  Co.  These  statistics  show 
that  the  value  of  poultry  products,  used  and  sold  per  farm 
in  1908,  was  $56.61  at  Halstad,  $95.75  at  Marshall,  and 
$150.43  at  Northfield.  This  makes  an  average  of  about 
$100  per  farm  for  poultry  products  per  year. 

A  Start  with  Poultry. — Withotit  hesitation  we  urge  the 
boys  and  girls  who  feel  a  liking  for  poultry  to  undertake 
it  as  a  means  of  earning  a  little  spending  money,  of  earn- 
ing their  way  through  school,  or  as  a  business  worthy  of 
studying  and  following  as  a  vocation.  As  a  beginning, 
relieve  your  mother  of  a  part  or  all  of  the  care  of  the 
poultry.  She  no  doubt  will  share  with  you  very  liberally 
the  earnings.  If  poultry  is  really  a  part  of  the  farm  busi- 
ness, and  your  father  is  at  the  head  of  it  and  making  it 
pay,  he  will,  or  should  at  least,  be  glad  to  give  you  a  defi- 
nite part  of  the  work  to  do  and  a  share  in  the  income,  or 
preferably  give  you  entire  charge  of  a  portion  of  the  flock. 
If  you  have  no  poultry,  but  have  a  place  where  you  can 
keep  it,  get  a  few  specimens  of  the  breed  you  like  and 
start  out  for  yourself.  You  will  have  many  things  to 
learn,  but  information  gained  in  this  way  is  fully  as  im- 
portant as  what  you  learn  at  school.  Your  father  and 
mother  will  be  able  to  assist  you ;  and  if  there  is  a  poultry 
man  in  the  vicinity  who  is  doing  well,  he  will  no  doubt 
give  you  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information.  Then  read 
a  few  poultry  bulletins  and  papers  as  you  get  time,  and 
you  vnll  gradually  become  interested  as  you  find  out  how 
much  there  is  to  know  about  chickens  and  their  care. 

Breeds  of  Poultry. — There  axe  a  great  many  breeds  of 
poultry,  and  most  of  them  are  good  under  special  condi- 
tions. There  is  no  best  breed,  and  if  you  have  not  made 
up  your  mind  which  you  prefer,  get  as  good  specimens  as 
you  can  of  the  breed  most  common  in  the  neighborhood. 

All  common  breeds  of  chickens  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes^ — egg,  meat  and  general  purpose — according 
to  what  they  are  adapted  to  produce,  just  as  cattle  are 
divided  into  dairy,  beef  and  general  purpose  classes. 


248  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

In  the  egg  producing  class  we  have  the  Leghorns,  Min- 
orcas,  Spanish  and  Andalusians.  In  the  meat  producing 
class  are  found  the  Cochins,  Brahmas,  and  Langshans. 
And  in  the  general  purpose  class,  or  those  well  adapted  to 
produce  both  eggs  and  meat,  are  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Orpingtons. 

There  are  good  and  poor  birds  in  any  breed,  and  the 
only  way  to  be  reasonably  sure  of  getting  good  chickens 
is  to  get  them  from  a  flock  that  has  a  good  record  as 
producers  of  either  eggs  or  meat,  or  both. 
Questions : 

1.  Compare  the  poultry  and  the  dairy  industries. 

2.  Does  the  poultry  in  your  neighborhood  receive  as 
much  attention  as  the  dairy  ? 

3.  What  is  the  conservative  estimate  of  the  poultry 
product  of  the  State  of  Minnesota? 

4.  What  are  the  three  classes  into  which  all  the  com- 
mon breeds  of  poultry  may  be  divided? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  farmer  keeps  50  hens  and  each  hen  lays  125 
eggs  in  a  year,  how  many  dozen  eggs  will  the  farmer  get 
in  a  year?  How  much  will  these  eggs  be  worth  at  20c. 
per  doz.  ? 

2.  If  a  farmer  keeps  50  hens  and  half  of  them  pro- 
duce 10  chickens  each,  how  many  young  chickens  will  he 
have  ?     How  much  are  they  worth  at  35c.  each  ? 

3.*  If  9000  pounds  of  grain,  worth  Ic.  per  pound,  is 
required  to  keep-  50  hens  one  year  and  raise  250  chickens, 
what  is  the  total  cost  of  feed  ? 

CARE    OF    POULTRY. 

Sitting  Hens. — Like  any  other  class  of  live  stock,  poul- 
try, to  do  well,  must  be  well  cared  for.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  summer  the  young  chicks  require  considerable 
attention.  A  great  deal  of  time  may  be  saved  if  several 
hens  are  set  at  one  time  in  a  building  separate  from  the 
main  poultry  house.  We  mention  raising  chicks  in  this 
way  because  but  comparatively  few  people  use  incubators. 
A  woodshed  or  corn  crib  that  is  clean,  and  that  may  be 


CARE  OF  POULTRY.  249 

darkened,  is  a  good  place  in  which  to  set  the  hens.  In  the 
evening  take  as  many  broody  hens  as  you  can  get,  or  as 
you  want,  and  put  them  in  this  shed  or  crib,  that  has  been 
well  cleaned  and  provided  with  good,  clean  nests,  pref- 
erably near  or  on  the  floor.  Shut  these  hens  in  over  night 
and  darken  the  windows.  If  they  continue  broody  the 
next  morning,  set  them  at  once  with  eggs  selected  from  the 
best  hens.  Then  provide  them  with  plenty  of  shelled  com 
or  other  grain,  fresh  water  and  a  box  of  ashes  or  road  dust 
for  their  dust  baths.  It  will  be  well  also  to  dust  some  in- 
sect powder  in  the  nest  to  keep  away  lice  and  mites.     It 


Fig.  99. — Two  baskets  of  eggs.  The  one  on  the  left  represents  the 
75  eggs  laid  by  the  average  hen  in  one  year.  The  one  on  the  right 
represents  220  eggs  laid  in  a  year  by  the  best  hen  at  the  Crookston 
Experiment  Station. 

is  but  little  more  work  to  care  for  a  dozen  setting  hens  in 
this  way  than  to  care  for  one. 

The  Young  Chicks. — For  the  first  day  or  so  after  the 
young  chicks  are  hatched  they  will  not  need  anything  to 
eat,  and  it  is  well  to  keep  them  in  the  nest.  If  the  room 
is  darkened  the  old  hens  will  not  be  in  such  a  hurry  to 
leave  the  nests.  When  the  chicks  are  about  30  or  36  hours 
old,  give  them  some  bread  crumbs  slightly  moistened  in 
milk.  Feed  them  several  times  during  the  day.  After 
a  day  or  so,  some  ground  oats,  with  the  hulls  removed, 
may  be  added,  and  after  a  week  or  ten  days  some  ground 


250  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

or  cracked  grain,  as  corn  or  wheat,  may  supply  a  part  of 
their  ration.  Very  small  kernels  of  wheat  and  millet  seed 
are  also  very  good.  The  chicks  should  be  supplied  at  all 
times  with  pure,  fresh  water  and  fine  grit.  Too  much  care 
cannot  be  taken  in  keeping  their  water  and  feed  clean. 
Plenty  of  exercise  is  also  necessary.  On  the  farm  the 
chickens  usually  have  the  run  of  the  whole  place,  which  is 
the  best  possible  condition  for  them,  as  they  can  then  get 
exercise,  insects,  grit,  and  green  food — things  that  are  not 
so  easily  supplied  when  they  are  confined. 

Care  of  Hens  in  Winter. — Eggs  are  one  of  the  chief 
products  of  poultry,  and  one's  success  in  the  business 
usually  depends  upon  getting  eggs  in  the  winter,  when 
they  bring  a  good  price.  To  get  eggs  in  the  winter, 
one  must  supply  as  nearly  as  possible  summer  conditions. 
In  other  words,  chickens  must  be  forced  to  get  exercise 
by  scratching  for  their  feed,  as  is  necessary  if  their 
grain  feed  is  thrown  in  loose  straw  or  litter.  They  should 
have  something  to  take  the  place  of  bugs  and  worms 
that  they  get  in  the  summer.  Scraps  of  meat  and  ground 
bone  will  answer.  They  must  have  something  to  take 
the  place  of  the  sharp  stones  and  gravel  that  they  pick 
up  asi  they  run  about  the  fields.  Crushed  stone  or  crock- 
ery will  supply  this  grit.  Such  material  is  sold  on  the 
market  as  grit,  and  poultry  should  always  have  a  supply 
in  winter.  The  grit  aids  them  in  digesting  their  food. 
They  need  something  to  take  the  place  of  the  green  food 
they  get  in  summer.  Cabbages,  beets  or  potatoes  will 
supply  this  need.  Some  material  containing  lime,  from 
which  they  can  make  egg  shells,  is  also  necessary. 
Crushed  oyster  shells,  kept  constantly  before  them,  will 
supply  the  necessary  lime.  They  must  be  kept  comfortr 
able — that  is,  their  house  should  be  kept  warm  enough 
so  they  will  not  freeze  their  combs.  Their  houses  should 
be  sufficiently  ventilated  to  supply  fresh  air  and  keep 
the  coop  dry.  They  should  have  a  supply  of  pure  wa- 
ter, a  plac©  for  a  dust  bath,  and  a  clean  coop  free  from 
vermin.  If  these  few  simple  precautions  are  observed 
and  a  liberal  supply  of  a  va/riety  of  grains,  as  wheat. 


POULTRY  HOUSE.  251 

barley,   oaits,    and  corn,   with   an   occasional   mash,    are 
supplied,  poultry  should  prove  profitable. 

Questions : 

1.  In  what  way  may  the  work  of  caring  for  sitting 
hens  be  lessened? 

2.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  care  of  young 
chicks  ? 

3.  What  conditions  must  be  provided  for  hens  in 
winter,  if  they  are  to  lay? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  The  average  hen  lays  about  75  eggs  per  year. 
What  are  the  eggs  worth  at  20c.  per  doz.  ? 

2.  Some  hens  lay  200  eggs  per  year.  What  are  the 
eggs  worth  at  20c.  per  doz.  ? 

3.  If  a  hen  can  cover  15  eggs,  how  many  eggs  will 
7  hens  cover?     What  would  these  hens  cost  at  50c.  each? 

4.  If  each  hen  lays  100  eggs,  worth  20c.  per  doz., 
and  raises  10  chicks,  worth  30c.  each,  in  a  year,  what  is 
the  annual  income  per  hen?  What  is  the  total  annual 
income  from  50  hens? 

POULTRY  HOUSE. 

General  Principles. — If  one  is  to  make  a  success  of 
raising  poultry,  he  must  provide  suitable  shelter.  In 
fact  shelter  is  one  of  the  first  essentials.  Nearly  every 
farm  affords  some  sort  of  a  poultry  house,  but  many  of 
these  could  be  made  better  without  any  great  additional 
cost.  All  farm  boys  and  girls  should  know  what  con- 
stitutes a  good  poultry  house,  so  they  may  know  what 
modifications  to  make  in  remodeling  the  old  house  or 
building  a  new  one. 

There  is  no  *'best"  type  of  poultry  house,  but  all 
good  poultry  houses  must  conform  to  certain  principles, 
and  it  is  to  discuss  and  make  clear  some  of  these  prin- 
ciples that  this  article  is  written. 

Location. — A  poultry  house  should  be  located  on  well 
drained  soil,  with  ample  space  for  yards  convenient  to 
the  house,   and,  where  some  protection   from  the  north 


252  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUTSTG   FOLKS. 

and  west  is  afforded  by  a  windbreak,  building  or  hill. 
An  orchard  affords  an  excellent  run  for  chickens.  There 
they  can  get  plenty  of  green  food  and  insects,  while 
in  turn  they  prove  a  real  benefit  to  the  orchard. 

Size. — It  is  not  wise  to  keep  more  than  fifty  hens 
together,  and  where  a  greater  number  is  kept,  they  should 
be  in  separate  groups.  Poultry  houses  are  usually  made 
12  to  18  feet  wide,  and  ajs  long  as  needed  or  desired.  If 
they  are  made  too  wide  the  sun  cannot  shine  to  the  ex- 
treme back.  If  a  house  is  16  feet  wide,  and  one  wants 
to  keep  50  birds,  it  would  need  to  be  about  16  feet  long. 
From  five  to  six  feet  of  floor  space  should  be  allowed 
each  fowl.  If  100'  birds  are  to  be  kept,  the  house  should 
be  built  twice  as  long  and  divided  into  two  parts.     For 


Fig.   100. — ^A  poultry  house  16x32,   with  4  windows  2x4,  giving  1  sq.  ft. 
of  window  to  16  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space.  Glass  may  be  replaced  with 
^muslin   as   desired,    or   one   window  may   be   made   longer  and   con- 
verted into  a  door. 

200  birds  the  house  should  be  four  times  as  long  and 
be  divided  into  four  pens. 

Light. — Sunlight  is  the  strongest  known  enemy  of 
germs,  and  provision  for  plenty  of  light  should  be  con- 
sidered in  remodeling  the  old  house  or  in  building  a  new 
one.  Effort  should  be  made  to  arrange  the  house  and 
windows  so  that  the  sunlight  can  reach  every  portion 
of  it  during  some  part  of  the  day.  Windows  also  make 
the  house  warmer  during  the  day.  Some  people,  how- 
ever, have  gone  to  extremes  and  made  nearly  the  whole 
south  side  of  their  poultry  house  of  glass.  This  is  liable 
to  make  the  house  too  warm  when  the  sun  shines  and 
too  cold  when  it  is  dark.    A  general  plan  that  seems  to 


POULTRY   HOUSE.  253 

meet  requirements  is  to  provide  one  square  foot  of  win- 
dow space  to  every  16  to  20  square  feet  of  floor  space. 

Ventilation. — It  is  important  to  keep  the  air  pure 
and  dry  in  a  poultry  house,  and  this  can  be  done  only 
by  providing  some  means  of  ventilation.  This  is  easily 
accomplished  in  warm  weather  by  leaving  the  windows 
open.  The  most  approved  method  of  ventilation  in  win- 
ter is  by  the  means  of  muslin^  curtains  in  the  windows. 
The  window  sash  is  opened  and  another  frame  covered 
with  muslin  is  inserted  in  its  place.  In  moderate  weath- 
er a  large  opening  is  left,  and  as  the  weather  grows 
more  severe  a  smaller  opening  is  left,  but  the  windows 
should  never  be  entirely  closed.  The  muslin  or  duck 
curtain  allows  air  to  pass  in  and  out  freely,  but  pre- 
vents a  draft. 

Warmth. — Hens  do  not  require  a  highly  heated  house, 
but  they  should  not  be  exposed  to  such  severe  tempera- 
ture as  might  freeze  their  combs.  A  house  provided 
with  a  muslin  or  duck  curtain  at  one  or  more  of  the 
windows  on  the  south  side  is  sufficiently  warm  during 
the  day  while  the  hens  are  exercising — scratching  in 
the  litter  for  their  food — and  at  night  their  roosting 
place  may  be  made  warmer,  if  necessary,  by  4ropping 
another  muslin  curtain  in  front  of  the  roost.  See  Figure 
102. 

Cleanliness. — A  successful  poultry  establishment  must 
be  kept  clean,  and  every  effort  should  be  made,  in  build- 
ing a  poultry  house,  to  make  it  easy  to  clean  and  to 
clean  thoroughly.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  everything 
within  the  poultry  house  removable,  so  all  ca)n  be  easily 
taken  out  and  a  thorough  cleansing  and  whitewashing 
given  whenever  desired. 
Questions : 

1.  What  improvements  can  you  see  might  be  made 
in  your  poultry  house  ? 

2.  Give  some  of  the  considerations  in  locating  a 
poultry  house. 

3.  How  large  a  house  would  you  suggest  for  50 
hens? 

4.  What  is  the  value  of  sunlight  in  a  poultry  house? 


254  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

5.  How  may  a  roosting  place  be  easily  made  warm- 
er than  the  rest  of  the  house  ? 

6.  What  can  one  do  to  make  it  easy  to  keep  a  poul- 
try house  clean  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  square  feet  of  floor  space  in  a  house 
12  feet  by  16  feet  in  size  1  If  each  hen  requires  6  square 
feet  of  floor  space,  how  many  .hens  will  such  a  poultry 
house  shelter? 

2.  How  many  hens  will  a  poultry  house  16x32  feet 
accommodate,  if  each  hen  requires  6  square  feet  of  floor 
space  ? 

3.  In  a  poultry  house  6  feet  wide  and  16  feet  long, 
how  large  a  window  should  it  have  to  supply  1  square 
foot  of  window  to  16  square  feet  of  floor  space  ? 

ONE  TYPE  OF  POULTRY  HOUSE. 

A  Poultry  Housej — There  are  a  great  many  types  of 
poultry  houses  which  include  all  of  the  principles  re- 
quired. It  is  simply  a  matter  of  choice  with  the  owner. 
We  describe  a  very  common  type,  merely  to  emphasize 
the  essentials  mentioned  in  the  previous  section. 

We  will  explaiin  in  detail  a  house  16x32  feet  in  size, 
large  enough  for  from  80  to  100  hens. 

It  is  placed  on  well  drained  land,  somewhat  protected 
from  the  north  and  west,  and  stands  the  long  way  east 
and  west,  with  the  high  side  to  the  south. 

The  foundation  is  of  stone  or  concrete,  set  in  the 
ground  at  least  one  foot,  a|nd  extending  above  ground 
six  inches.  A  sill  4x6  inches  is  placed  on  top  of  the 
foundation  and  the  studding  spiked  on  top  of  the  sill. 
The  house  is  4^^  feet  high  at  the  back  and  8  feet  high 
at  the  front.  It  has  a  shed  roof  made  of  boards  covered 
with  prepared  roofing.  The  studdings  are  placed  two 
feet  apart  and  boarded  with  rough  boards.  The  build- 
ing is  then  papered  with  building  paper  and  sided. 

Doors  and  Windows. — A  door  is  placed  in  each  end, 
near  the  south  side ;  and  four  windows,  about  2x4  feet 
in  size,  are  made  in  the  south  side.     They  are  placed 


ONE  TYPE  OF   POULTRY  HOUSE. 


255 


high,  so  the  sun  will  shine  clear  to  the  back  part  of  the 
coop.  There  will  be  an  opening  near  the  floor  on  the 
south  side,  through  which  the  hens  may  be  let  out,  or 
a  door  may  be  placed  in  this  side  if  desired.  The  win- 
dows are  made  to  slip  up  and  down,  the  same  as  in  a 
house.  At  least  one  of  the  windows  is  provided  with  a 
muslin  or  duck  curtain;  and,  except  in  the  most  severe 
weather,  the  upper  sash  is  let  down  and  the  opening  cov- 
ered with  the  canvas.  The  canvas  may  be  on  a  frame, 
hinged  at  the  top,  or  simply  tacked  in  the  opening.  This 
provides  ample  ventilation  without  draught  and  keeps 
the  air  pure  and  dry.  In  cold  weather  the  windows 
may  be  partly  closed,  but  never  entirely. 


Fig.  101. — Floor  Plan  of  Poultry  House  16x32. 


Inside  Finish. — The  inside  may  be  left  with  the  bare 
studding  or  preferably  ceiled  up  with  matched  lumber. 
The  house  is  partitioned  into  two  parts,  the  lower  three 
feet  of  the  partition  is  made  of  boards,  so  the  fowls 
cannot  fight,  and  the  upper  part  is  of  wire  netting. 

Roosts. — To  maike  it  easy  to  clean  the  coop,  and  to 
leave  all  the  floor  space  available  for  feeding  and  ex- 
ercising, a  platform  three  feet  wide  is  built  against  the 
nortli  wall  2^  feet  from  the  floor.  This  is  to  catch  the 
droppings  and  should  be  made  of  matched  lumber.  Arms 
of  2x4s,  23^   feet  long,   are  attached  to  the   back  wall 


256 


AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


one  foot  above  the  platform,  to  extend  out  over  the 
platform.  Legs  are  placed  under  the  outer  ends  of  these 
arms  to  hold  them  level  with  the  platform.  On  top  of 
these  arms  and  at  right  angles  to  them  are  placed  two 
poles,  or  2x3iS  edgewise,  with  corners  rounded  off,  for 
roosts.  The  back  roost  is  about  one  foot  from  the  wall 
and  the  second  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  from  the  first. 
A  muslin  curtain  is  hung  from  the  ceiling,  to  drop 
in  front  of  the  roosts  when  needed.  To  clean  the 
droppings  from  the  platform  the  roosts  may  be  un- 
hooked and  removed,  or  the  front  side  raised,  and  both 
hooked  to  the  ceiling.  They  are  then  out  of  the  way, 
so  that  the  cleaning  may  be  thoroughly  done. 

Nests. — ^For  nests  a  box  8  to  12  feet  long  and  12  inches 
wide  is  made,  with  sides  8  inches  high.     This  is  divided 

into  nests  12  to  14 
inches  long,  with  parti- 
tions 18  inches  high. 
Hens  prefer  nests  that 
are  rather  dark,  so  a 
good  place  for  them  is 
under  the  front  edge  of 
the  platform.  Place  this 
row  of  nests  close  up 
under  the  front  edge 
of  the  platform  used  for  dropping  board.  Then 
hinge  a  10-inch  board  in  front  of  the  nests  to  close  the 
10-inch  space  between  the  platform  and  the  8-inch  board 
on  the  front  side  of  the  nests.  This  darkens  them  some- 
what. The  hens  enter  from  behind.  The  high  partitions 
between  the  nests  prevent  the  hens  from  going  from  one 
nest  to  the  next,  so  they  are  not  likely  to  disturb  one  an- 
other and  break  or  dirty  eggs.  When  gathering  the  eggs 
the  board  in  front  is  opened.  These  nests  should  be  loose, 
so  they  may  be  taken  out  to  be  aired,  sunned  and  spray- 
ed, when  desired,  to  keep  them  free  from  mites  and  lice. 
The  Floor. — A  cement  floor  covered  with  a  little  sand 
and  clean  litter  is  the  best  for  a  poultry  house,  as  it  can 
be  kept  dry  and  clean  with  very  little  work. 


Fig.  102. — Cross  section  of  poultry- 
house;  note  arrangement  of  roosts 
and  nests  which  leaves  all  floor  space 
open. 


EGGS.  257 

With  a  poultry  house  as  described,  one  can  keep  poul- 
try clean  and  comfortable  the  whole  year  through. 
Questions : 

1.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  size  and  ar- 
rangement of  windows  in  a  poultry  house? 

2.  What  advantage  is  there  in  having  the  roosts  and 
other  inside  fixtures  of  a  poultry  house  removable? 

3.  Describe  a  good  arrangement  for  nests  in  a  poul- 
try house. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  yards  of  muslin  in  a  strip  16  feet  long 
and  3  feet  wide?  How  much  would  it  cost  at  12c.  per 
yard? 

2.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  would  be  required  to 
build  a  platform  3  feet  wide  by  16  feet  long?  (Allow 
1-6  for  matched  lumber.)  How  much  would  it  cost  at 
$30.00  per  thousand  feet? 

3.  To  make  a  row  of  nests  12  ft.  long,  as  described 
above,  requires  2  pieces  1x8,  1  piece  1x10,  and  1  piece 
lxl2^all  12  ft.  long,  and  1  piece  1x12x20  ft.  long.  How 
many  feet  of  lumber  are  required  ?  How  much  would  it 
cost  at  $24.00  per  thousand  feet? 

EGGS. 

Uses  of  Eggs. — There  is  perhaps  no  article  of  food 
more  commonly  and  generally  used  than  eggs.  It  is  es- 
timated that  they  form  3. per  cent  of  the  total  food  of 
man.  They  are  boiled,  fried,  poached,  scrambled,  and 
sometimes  baked,  to  form  a  substitute  for  meat.  Raw 
eggs  are  used  in  many  different  drinks.  They  are  es- 
sential in  cooking.  Omelets,  custards,  cakes,  and  many 
icings,  all  require  eggs.  In  foods  where  eggs  are  combin- 
ed with  other  materials,  the  purpose  of  the  egg  is  to 
give  consistency,  flavor,  color  or  lightness,  as  well  as 
to  contribute  to  the  nutritive  value  of  the  compound. 
Thus,  in  the  custard,  eggs  thicken.  In  cakes,  especially  in 
the  sponge  cake,  we  have  an  example  of  eggs  used  to  leav- 
en or  give  lightness.     The  well-beaten  white  incloses  air 


258  AGRICULTURE    FOR    YOUNG    FOLKS. 

in  small  bubbles.  It  is  the  presence  of  air  that  causes  the 
white  to  assume  so  different  an  appearance  as  the  beat- 
ing process  continues.  When  this  beaten  white  is  mix- 
ed with  other  materials  and  baked,  the  whole  composi- 
tion remains  light  and  porous,  because  the  heat  has  made 
the  walls  of  the  air  cells  firm  and  their  shape  is  main- 
tained. 

Food  Value  of  Eggs. — Milk  and  eggs  have  sometimes 
been  termed  "perfect  foods,"  in  as  much  as  each  con- 
tains all  the  elements  needed  for  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  young.  But  they  are  not  perfect  foods  in 
the  sense  of  being  all-sustaining  to  adults.  Eggs  are 
rich  in  protein,  the  substance  needed  to  build  up  and 
repair  the  tissues  of  the  body.  They  also  contain  con- 
siderable fat.  But  the  third  element  of  food,  carbohy- 
drates, must  be  supplied  by  the  use  of  bread,  sugar  or 
vegetables  to  form  a  complete  diet.  The  following  table 
will  show  how  eggs  compare  with  a  few  of  the  animal 
products : 

%  Protein.  %  Fat.  %  Carbohydrates. 

Egga  13.4  10.5 

Sirloin   Steak    ....     18.9  18.5 

Oysters   6.2  1.2                     3.7 

Milk    3.3  4.0                    5.0 

Cheese    25.0  33.0                     2.4 

As  shown  by  the  table,  eggs  are  very  nutritious  food 
and  rank  well  with  the  meats.  The  amount  and  kinds 
of  nutrients  indicate  that  they  may  safely  be  used  in 
the  diet  in  the  same  way  as  most  animal  foods. 

Cooking  Eggs. — Numerous  experiments  have  been 
made  to  show  the  effect  of  heat  upon  egg  yolk  and  the 
egg  white  or  albumen.  It  has  been  found  that  if  an 
egg  is  put  into  boiling  water  (212  degrees  F.)  and  kept 
there  any  considerable  time,  the  albumen  becomes  hard 
and  tough,  also  undergoes  shrinkage.  The  same  amount 
of  heat  produces  a  like  result  upon  the  egg  when  it  is 
removed  from  the  shell  and  mixed  with  other  materials, 


EGGS.  259 

though  the  effect  is  not  so  noticeable.  This  fact  explains 
the  curdling  of  custards,  shrinkage  and  toughening  of 
omelets  and  sponge  cake,  when  the  proper  amount  of 
heat  has  not  been  employed  in  the  cooking.  The  yolk 
of  the  egg  cooks  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  white. 
If  am  egg  is  cooked  in  water  about  160  degrees  F.,  the 
albumen  will  become  white  and  firm,  but  remains  tender 
and  is  more  easily  digested,  while  the  yolk  will  also 
cook  thoroughly. 

Boiled  Eggs. — Among  the  more  common  ways  of 
serving  eggs,,  the  soft  boiled  and  the  hard  boiled  are  most 
generally  recommended.  As  the  cooking  is  influenced 
in  so  many  different  ways  it  is  extremely  hard  to  give 
definite  directions.  The  amount  of  water  used,  the  ket- 
tle employed,  the  temperature  and  freshness  of  the  eggs, 
as  well  as  the  number  to  be  cooked,  all  have  an  influence 
and  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Only  general  di- 
rections and  the  theory  of  the  process  can  be  given. 
The  desired  results  can  soon  be  obtained  by  each  house- 
keeper after  a  few  trials.  By  using  the  same  kettle,  ob- 
serving the  same  conditions  as  to  temperature  and  amount 
of  water,  a  housewife,  with  usually  the  same  number  of 
eggs  to  cook  each  meal,  may  soon  feel  as  certain  of  the 
condition  of  her  boiled  eggs  as  she  is  of  her  bread. 

Soft  Boiled  Eggs. — The  term  "boiled  eggs"  refers 
to  eggs  cooked  in  their  shells  in  hot  water,  though  not 
necessarily  boiled.  The  following  is  a  general  direction 
to  secure  soft  boiled  eggs:  Put  over  the  fire  in  a  kettle 
that  may  be  closely  covered  (a  granite  kettle  is  pref- 
erable, as  it  holds  heat  better)  about  two  quarts  of  wa- 
ter. When  the  water  is  boiling,  raise  the  kettle  from 
the  stove,  and  as  soon  as  the  bubbling  ceases,  slip  the 
eggs  into  the  kettle,  cover  immediately  and  place  in  the 
wao^ming  oven,  on  the  reservoir,  or  any  place  where  it  will 
not  gain  more  heat  nor  readily  loose  what  it  has.  The 
two  quarts  of  water  should  be  sufficient  to  cook  about 
six  eggs.     Let  the  eggs  remain  eight  minutes  and  then 


260  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

immerse  in  cold  water.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  eggs 
sihould  be  soft  boiled,  i.  e.,  the  white  should  be  firm  but 
tender,  and  the  yolk  thoroughly  cooked,  though  still  in 
liquid  form.  Such  soft  boiled  eggs  are  very  different 
from  those  put  into  boiling  water  and  actually  boiled 
three  or  four  minutes.  In  the  former  the  white  is  no- 
ticeably more  tender  and  uniformly  cooked,  and  the  yolk 
is  more  thoroughly  cooked  because  of  the  longer  time 
of  cooking.  For  hard  boiled,  the  eggs  are  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  only  left  for  20  or  30  minutes. 

When  the  eggs  are  put  in,  the  water  is  practically  at 
212  degrees  F.  or  boiling  point,  but  the  presence  of  the 
eggs  immediately  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  water 
to  about  160  degrees  F.,  which  is  the  desired  temperature 
to  cook  the  albumen  and  is  also  sufficient  for  the  yolk. 
This  process  seems  simpler  and  more  practical  than  to 
employ  a  thermometer  and  ascertain  the  exact  temper- 
ature. 

Questions : 

1.  Give  some  of  the  ways  in  which  eggsi  are  used. 

2.  Explain  how  beating  egg  white  makes  it  light 
and  foamy. 

3.  What  two  nutrients  are  found  in  eggs?  What 
nutrient  is  not  found  ? 

4.  What  effect  does  boiling  have  on  albumen  1 

5.  State  a  simple  process  to  secure  soft  boiled  eggs 
without  toughening  the  albumen. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  dozen  eggs  weigh  22  ounces,  and  contain 
13,4%  protein  and  10.5%  fat,  how  many  ounces  of  protein 
and  of  fat  do  they  contain? 

2.  If  a  sirloin  steak  contains  18.9%  protein  and  18.5% 
fat,  how  many  ounces  of  protein  and  of  fat  in  1  pound  ? 

3.  If  one  eats  3  eggs  weighing  2  ounces  each,  how 
much  protein  and  fat  does  he  get  if  eggs  contain  13.4% 
protein  and  10.5%  fat? 


CARE  OF  HENS  IN  WINTER. 


261 


CARE    OF    HENS    IN    WINTER. 

Eggs  in  Winter. — One  of  the  great  problems  of  the 
poultryman  is  to  get  eggs  during  the  winter,  when  they 
are  sure  to  bring  a  good  price.  Only  the  careful  and 
thoughtful  are  able  to  get  eggs  in  any  quantity  during 
December,  January  and  February.  Those  who  do  make 
a  careful  study  of  feeding  and  care  can  be  sure  of  good 
results  on  the  average,  but  even  when  apparently  all 
conditions  are  favorable,  unavoidable  conditions  occur 
which  make  results  uncertain. 


""IfS^-^ 

r^^-- 

Fiii'.  103. — Hens  in  Coluny  House. 


No  Rule  To  Follow. — There  are  no  set  rules  to  follow 
in  successful  poultry  feeding,  as  there  are  many  condi- 
tions which  influence  the  amount  and  kind  of  feeds 
needed  by  a  flock.  A  flock  of  Plymouth  Rock  hens  will 
need  more  to  ealt  than  the  same  number  of  Leghorns,  be- 
cause they  are  larger.  In  severely  cold  weather  the  same 
number  of  birds  will  need  more  food  than  they  will  in 


262  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

warmer  weather.  A  flock  of  pullets  may  be  fed  slightly- 
more  without  danger  of  getting  them  too  fat,  than  can 
a  flock  of  mature  hens.  Hens  getting  a  great  deal  of 
exercise  will  require  more  food  than  those  getting  little 
or  no  exercise. 

Hens  Too  Fat. — One  very  general  cause  of  low  egg 
yields  is  that  the  hens  are  too  fat.  Hens  ranging  over 
the  fields,  about  corn  cribs  and  granaries  and  in  feed 
yards  during  the  fall  and  early  winter  become  very  fat, 
and  fat  hens  never  lay  well.  Young  pullets  that  are 
growing  during  this  period  are  less  likely  to  become  too 
fat  than  are  old  hens,  and  for  this  reason  pullets  are 
more  likely  to  lay  well  during  the  early  winter  than 
are  older  hens.  For  these  reasons  it  seems  best  on  the 
average  farm  to  keep  over  mostly  pullets  for  the  winter 
layers. 

Exercise. — Hens,  like  people,  if  they  get  their  wants 
supplied  too  easily  will  not  take  the  exercise  they  need. 
Plenty  of  exercise  and  care  in  feeding  will  do  much  to 
prevent  hens  becoming  too  fat.  In  the  winter,  exercise 
is  most  easily  induced  by  so  feeding  hens  that  they  are 
required  to  make  considerable  efl'ort  to  get  enough  to 
eat.  The  floor  of  the  pen  or  house  in  which  the  hens 
are  kept,  or  an  adjoining  shed,  should  be  so  arranged 
that  the  floor  may  be  kept  covered  with  straw  or  litter 
into  which  the  grain  feed  of  the  ration  may  be  scattered. 
The  hens  will  then  have  to  scratch  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  day  to  get  the  grain,  and  will  get  much  needed  ex- 
ercise in  this  wa,y.  A  beet  or  a  cabbage  hung  on  a  string, 
just  high  enough  from  the  floor  so  a  hen  will  have  to 
jump  a  little  to  reach  it,  will  encourage  them  to  exercise. 

Lice  and  Mites. — ^A  very  frequent  cause  for  poor  egg 
yields  is  lice  or  mites,  or  both,  which  make  the  hens  so 
uncomfortable  that  they  cannot  lay.  These  vermin  are 
always  present,  and  only  by  constant  care  and  attention 
can  they  be  controlled.  Cleanliness  is  the  first  step  in 
fighting  these  parasites.  All  litter  and  droppings  should 
be  cleaned  out  frequently  and  fresh  litter  put  in.  White- 
washing the  interior  of  the  hen  house  once  or  twice  a 


CARE  OF  HENS  IN  WINTER.  263 

year  is  also  helpful.  A  good-sized  box  filled  with  road 
dust  should  always  be  provided  for  hens  that  are  con- 
fined. 

Occasionally  spraying  the  roosts  and  the  inside  of  the 
house  with  kerosene  emulsion,  and  pa^inting  the  roosts 
with  liquid  lice  killer,  are  very  good  methods  of  destroy- 
ing these  pests,  especially  if  repeated  in  a  few  days. 
Air-slaked  lime,  fine  dust  or  ashes  should  be  applied  to 
the  dropping  boards  after  each  cleaning. 

Small  Things. — ^While  the  poultry  business  amounts 
to  millions  of  dollars  each  year,  the  production  of  poul- 
try products  on  any  farm  is  simply  attending  to  a  lot 
of  little  things.  One  who  is  not  observing  of  little  things 
and  willing  to  keep  constantly  after  details  will  prob- 
ably not  succeed  in  the  poultry  business.  One  who  is 
willing  to  look  after  the  little  details  that  will  make  his 
poultry  comfortable  is  quite  certain  of  good  results. 

Questions: 

1.  Give  several  conditions  which  "  influence  the 
amount  of  feed  required  by  a  flock  of  laying  hens. 

2.  What  is  one  of  the  general  reasons  of  low  egg 
yields  in  winter? 

3.  In  what  way  is  it  practicable  to  enforce  hens  to 
exercise? 

4.  Enumerate  the  details  that  must  be  looked  after 
in  caring  for  a  flock  of  hens. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  9  eggs  are  obtained  daily  from  a  flock  of  36 
hens,  what  proportion  of  the  hens  is  laying? 

2.  If  a  flock  of*  36  hens  lay  9  eggs  per  day,  how 
many  dozen  will  be  produced  in  a  week?     In  a  month? 

3.  If  eggs  are  worth  35c.  per  dozen,  how  much  are 
9  eggs  worth?  IIov/  much  are  5|4  doz.  worth?  How 
much  are  22 V>  doz.  worth? 


264  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

FEEDING   LAYING   HENS. 

Rations  for  Laying  Hens. — It  is  not  easy  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  feed  eaten  by  an  average  laying 
hen.  If  one  is  to  study  the  poultry  business  from  a 
practical  point  of  view  he  must  know  approximately  the 
requirements  of  his  flock.  As  stated  in  the  last  lesson, 
food  requirements  vary;  but  it  is  well  to  have  some  basis 
on  which  to  base  one's  calculations.  We  submit  below 
a  few  rations  that  have  been  fed  by  practical  poultry- 
men,  successfully.  The  following  rations  are  based  on 
the  requirements  of  an  average  laying  hen  for  one  day. 

Ration  No.  1,  reported  by  The  Cornell  Experiment 
Station.  See  Bulletin  No.  212,  page  11 :  .175  lbs.  wheat ; 
.07  lbs.  ground  bone ;  .022  lbs.  cabbage. 

The  above  is  the  average  amount  fed  per  day  to  each 
hen.  The  actual  amount  varied  each  day  as  the  re- 
quirements of  the  hens  varied.  Early  in  the  morning 
a  part  of  the  wheat  was  scattered  in  the  straw  on  the 
floor  of  the  coop.  In  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  the 
flock  was  fed  all  of  the  cooked  cut  meat  and  bone  they 
would  eat  up  quickly.  Then  at  4:30  p.  m.  they  were 
given  a  liberal  feed  of  wheat  again.  The  wheat  was 
always  scattered  in  the  straw  to  make  the  fowls  exer- 
cise. The  cabbage  was  fed  by  having  one  suspended 
from  a  wire  and  in  reach  of  the  hens. 

In  addition  to  the  feed,  the  hens  always  had  a  sup- 
ply of  fresh  water,  grit  and  oyster  shells.  Grit  is  neces- 
sary to  aid  in  the  digestion  of  the  food,  and  oyster 
shells  are  necessary  to  supply  the  material  of  which  egg 
shells  are  made. 

Ration  No.  2,  reported  by  the  Utah  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Bulletin  No.  92,  page  139 :  .156  lbs.  mixed  grain ; 
.022  lbs.  ground  bone;  .004  lbs.  beef  scraps;  .008  lbs. 
gluten  meal;  .066  lbs.  skimmed  milk. 

As  in  ration  No.  1,  grit,  shells  and  water  were  sup- 
plied in  addition  to  the  feed.  The  figures  represented 
the  average  amount  of  each  kind  of  feed  given  per  day 


FEEDING  LAYING  HENS.  265 

to  each  hen.  Ration  No.  2  supplies  a  little  more  variety 
than  ration  No.  1,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  neces- 
sitating the  purchase  of  feeds  other  than  those  raised 
on  the  farm. 

VaTiety. — Hens,  like  any  other  class  of  stock,  like  a 
variety  of  foods,  and  in  this  respect  the  last  ration  is 
good.  Variety  in  grains  is  very  desdrable,  and  is  easily 
provided  by  feeding  a  mixture  of  the  common  farm 
grains.  Corn  can  profitably  be  added  to  the  ra.tion,  even 
of  laying  hens,  to  replace  a  part  of  the  grain  feed.  Corn 
is  the  cheapest  of  the  grain  feeds.  If  corn  is  fed,  it  is 
well  to  give  it  the  last  thing  in  the  afternoon,  so  the  hens 
may  have  a  crop  full  to  go  to  roost  on.  It  is  not  well 
to  feed  too  large  an  amount  of  corn,  as  it  is  too  fatten- 
ing. Millet  seed,  buckwheat  and  sunflower  seed  are  good 
feeds  to  add  in  small  amounts  to  the  grain  ration,  to 
add  variety. 

Green  Feed. — Chickens  will  eat  quite  an  amount  of 
fine  cut  clover  or  alfalfa,  or  the  leaves  that  may  usually 
be  gathered  in  the  mow  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  chute 
where  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  thrown  down.  This  may 
be  fed  dry,  or  moistened  and  mixed  with  a^  little  ground 
feed.  Hens  will  eat  several  pounds  of  this  material  dur- 
ing the  winter,  if  given  the  opportunity^ 

Mangels,  beets  or  carrots  are  also  valuable  feeds  for 
laying  hens  in  winter.  Such  feeds  take  the  place  of 
the  green  grass  hens  take  in  the  summer. 

Ration  No.  3. — Fed  with  good  results  by  the  Maine 
Experiment  Station.  See  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  357, 
page  33,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture :  .246  lbs.  grain  and 
meal;  .011  lbs.  oyster  shell;  .006  lbs.  dry  cracked  bone; 
.005  lbs.  grit ;  .006  lbs.  charcoal ;  .027  lbs.  clover. 

The  above  is  the  average  amount  given  per  hen  per 
day.  This  ration  was  fed  in  practically  the  same  man- 
ner as  ration  No.  1,  except  for  the  mash  or  ground  feed 
This  mash  was  made  of  a  mixture  of  2  parts  by  weight 
of  bran,  1  part  corn  meal,  1  part  middlings,  1  part  gluten 
meal,   1  part  linseed  meal  and  1  part   beef  scraps,   and 


266  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

was  kept  constantly  before  the  birds  in  a  feed  trough 
with  a  slatted  front.    This  mash  was  fed  dry. 

A  simpler  mash,  composed  of  bran,  some  ground  grain 
of  any  or  several  kinds,  and  if  possible  a  little  beef  scrap, 
would  likely  give  as  good  results  as  the  more  compli- 
cated mash. 

Questions : 

1.  Describe  the  method  followed  in  feeding  ration 
No.  1. 

2.  What  can  you  say  regarding  feeding  hens  sev- 
eral different  kinds  of  feed? 

3.  In  what  ways  may  green  feed  be  supplied  to  hens 
in  winter? 

4.  Describe  the  composition  and  method  of  feeding 
the  mash  in  ration  No.  3. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  much  of  the  various  kinds  of  feed  will  a 
hen  eat  in  200  days,  if  fed  ration  No.  1  ? 

2.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  hen  200  days  on 
ration  No.  1,  if  wheat  is  worth  80c.  per  bu.,  ground  bone 
Ic.  per  lb.,  and  cabbage  $5.00  per  ton? 

3.  How  many  eggs  must  a  hen  lay  in  200  days  to 
pay  for  her  feed,  if  she  is  fed  ration  No.  1  and  eggfi  are 
worth  25c.  per  dozen? 


CHAPTER  XI. 
THE  FARM  HOME. 

WHAT    A     DESIRABLE     HOME    SHOULD     BE. 

Pleasant  Surroundings. — Almost  every  one  prefers  or- 
der, neatness  and  beauty  in  preference  to  their  opposites 
— disorder,  untidiness  and  bareness  or  lack  of  beauty. 
A  farm  seems  more  valuable  if  the  yards  surrounding 
the  house  and  barn  are  clean,  neat  and  orderly.  If 
one  sees  a  smooth,  well  kept  lawn,  with  a  few  appro- 
priate shade  trees  and  flowers,  he  feels  sure  that  here 
is  prosperity,  or  here,  at  least,  is  a  restful  home. 

In  cities  and  villages  considerable  attention  is  paid 
to  beautifying  the  lawns,  and  a  very  little  effort  in  this 
direction  adds  an  elegance  and  charm  to  an  otherwise 
plain  home. 

Facilities. — The  farm  folk  may  not  have  much  time 
to  think  how  they  would  enjoy  these  things,  or  to  es- 
tablish and  keep  such  conditions,  but  there  are  many 
things  that  can  be  had  with  but  little  effort  and  little 
expense,  and  there  are  many  things  which  the  boys  and 
girls  can  do.  In  the  country,  where  there  is  plenty  of 
room  for  a  lawn,  for  flowers,  ornamental  shrubs  and  trees, 
and  where  good  soil,  fertilizer,  team  and  machinery 
for  flxing  up  a  lawn  are  available,  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  these  possibilities  are  so  little  realized. 

Neatness. — The  first  step  for  the  boys  aind  girls,  who 
are  anxious  to  aid  in  beautifying  their  homes,  is  to  keep 
things  as  neat  as  possible.  No  boy  of  school  age  but 
can  move  a  pile  of  ashes  if  the  ashes  during  the  winter 
have  been  piled  too  near  the  house.  Raking  the  chip 
yard  is  not  too  difficult  for  the  average  boy.  Often 
broken  dishes,  tin  cans,  old  shoes,  etc.,  have  been  cast 
into  a  pile  somewhere.  These  are  best  removed  and 
buried.  Frequently  the  banking  is  left  until  late  into 
the  summer,  or  only  partly  removed  because  of  frost 
when  the  work  was  begun.    A  little  persuasion  from  the 


268 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


boys  or  girls  might  bring  the  team  and  wagon  to  the 
house  at  the  close  of  a  day's  Avork,  to  remove  the  bank- 
ing or  the  remaining  portion  of  it. 

The  Lawns. — When  neatness  has  been  established,  con- 
sider next  the  lawn.  Many  farmers  have  reasonably 
smooth  lawns  covered  with  good  sod.  If  this  is  well 
burned  over  and  thoroughly  raked  in  the  spring,  it  will 
not  be  difficult  to  keep  it  cut  with  a  lawn  mower  all 
summer.  One  must  not  let  the  grass  get  the  start  of 
him  or  it  will  be  diificult  or  perhaps  impossible  to  cut 
it  with  a  mower.  A  lawn  mower  may  sound  like  an 
extravagant  article,  but  it  is  not  expensive  considering 
the  number  of  years  one  may  be  run. 


Fig-.   104.     View  of  a  Pleasant  Farm  Home,   Showing  Good  Effects 
of  Lawn,  Vines  and  Trees. 

Many  farm  yards  are  bare  and  packed  hard  from 
frequent  travel.  In  such  cases  the  aid  of  the  father  or 
''big  brother"  must  be  solicited  to  plow  it  up  and  per- 
haps grade  it  a  little.  If  the  soil  is  not  rich  enough,  a 
few  loads  of  manure  and  black  earth  might  have  to  be 
hauled.  The  boys  and  girls  can  finish  the  work  by 
thoroughly  raking  the  soil  to  prepare  it  for  the  seed. 
Blue  grass  alone  is  the  most  desirable  lawn  grass,  but 
as  this  starts  very  slowly  it  is  well  to  mix  with  it  some 


THE    FARM    HOME.  269 

* 

more  rapid  growing  varieties,  such  as  white  clover  and 
red  top.  Sow  this  mixture  very  thickly,  and  rake  again 
to  cover  the  seed.  If  convenient,  roll  the  lawn  to  make 
a  smooth  surface  and  give  the  seeds  a  better  chance  to 
start  quickly. 

The  lawn  should  be  plowed  and  seeded  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  convenient,  as  it  then  has  the  spring 
rains  to  start  the  grass.  The  farm  lawns  may  suffer 
during  a  dry  summer,  but  under  ordinary  summer  con- 
ditions they  will  thrive  and  do  well  if  the  soil  is  kept 
rich  by  an  occasional  dressing  of  well  rotted  manure. 

Where  it  is  necessary  or  desirable,  paths  may  be  made 
of  gravel  or  sand. 

A  few  good  shade  trees  and  ornamental  shrubs  add 
much  to  the  appearance  of  a  farm  yard,  and  there  is 
no  reason  why  Arbor  Day  cannot  be  observed  on  the 
farms  and  many  desirable  trees  set  out.  Soft  maple 
makes  a  very  beautiful  shade  tree  and  is  of  reasonably 
quick  growth.  The  elm  is  a  popular  tree  for  the  yard 
or  drive  way.  The  box  elder  is  commonly  used  and 
makes  very  rapid  growth. 

Questions : 

1.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  why  a  neat, 
orderly  farm  home  is  preferable. 

2.  What  is  the  first  step  in  improving  the  appearance 
of  a  farm  home  ? 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  about  starting  a  lawn. 

4.  Write  what  you  can  about  shade  trees. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  black  dirt  are  re- 
quired to  cover  a  lawn  100  ft.  square  1  in.  thick  ? 

2.  If  it  takes  an  hour  to  mow  a  lawn,  100  ft.  square, 
and  it  must  be  mowed  18  times  during  the  summer,  how 
many  hours  of  time  are  required?  How  much  is  this 
time  worth  at  15c.  per  hour? 

3.  How  far  would  one  have  to  walk  to  mow  a  lawn 
100  feet  square,  with  a  lawn  mower  that  cuts  a  swath 
16  inches  wide? 


270  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

WIND    BREAKS. 

Value. — A  good  wind  break  about  a  farm  home  is  very 
valuable  and  is  one  of  the  luxuries  that  may  be  had 
at  very  >  little  expense.  If  there  is  a  good  wind  break 
about  the  buildings,  less  fuel  is  required  to  keep  the 
house  warm  and  the  stable  will  be  much  warmer.  An- 
imals must  be  kept  warm  during  the  winter,  either  by 
shelter  or  by  feed.  If  they  are  exposed  to  the  cold 
winds  or  are  kept  in  cold  stables  they  must  have  more 
feed.  Feed  is  too  expensive  to  be  given  merely  to  pro- 
duce warmth.  The  shelter  belt  really  saves  feed,  which 
is  worth  money. 

The  wind  break  also  protects  the  orchard  and  gar- 
den from  early  frost,  from  storms,  and  from  hot  winds, 
making  them  much  more  likely  to  produce  good  crops. 

It  is  a  great  comfort  to  hay  makers  and  harvesters 
to  get  behind  a  good  wind  break,  on  windy  days,  to 
unload  hay  or  grain.  Many  times  it  is  possible  to  fin- 
ish stacking  behind  such  shelter,  when  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  handle  the  hay  or  grain  out  in  the  open. 

The  wind  break  makes  the  task  of  doing  chores  much 
pleasanter  and  easier  during  the  winter  than  it  would 
be  if  the  buildings  and  yards  were  exposed. 

Kinds  of  Trees  to  Use. — There  are  many  kinds  of 
trees  that  make  good  wind  breaks.  The  first  require- 
ment is  that  they  are  hardy — that  is,  will  not  kill  out 
during  the  winter  or  during  a  dry  summer.  Second, 
that  they  have  a  neat  appearance  and  grow  in  such  form 
that  they  really  check  the  wind. 

In  starting  a  new  wind  break,  trees  that  grow  rapid- 
ly are,  as  a  rule,  used.  The  white  and  the  golden  willow, 
Cottonwood,  Norway  poplar,  box  elder,  soft  maple,  etc., 
are  some  of  the  rapid-growing  trees.  These  trees,  if 
properly  set  out  and  cared  for,  will  make  a  good  wind 
break  in  five  to  ten  years.  Trees  that  grow  rapidly  usu- 
ally do  not  last  very  long,  so  if  the  quick-growing  trees 
are  used,  slow-growing  and  longer-lived  trees  should 
be  set  among  them  to  replace  them  when  they  begin  to 


WIND   BREAKS. 


271 


die  and  break  down.  Some  of  the  common  slow  grow- 
ing, long  lived  trees  are  the  elm,  hard  maple,  green  ash, 
and  several  of  the  evergreens. 

Planning  for  the  Wind  Break. — In  planning  for  a 
wind  break  it  is  Avell  to  make  a  sketch  of  the  farm, 
showing  the  buildings,  lanes,  fields,  drives,  yards,  etc., 
and  so  arrange  the  trees  in  setting  them  out  as  to  give 
protection  from  the  north  and  the  west  winds.  If  posi- 
sible  arrange  the  trees  so  that  the  road  and  other  points 
of  interest  may  be  seen  from  the  house. 


Fig-.   105.     An  Evergreen   Wind  Break. 


The  wind  break  should  be  far  enough  from  the  build- 
ings, so  snow  Avill  not  drift  about  them  or  into  the  yards. 
It  is  well  to  have  the  wind  break  include  the  garden 
and  orchard  as  well  as  the  buildings. 

Questions  : 

1.  Of  what  financial  value  is  a  wind  break? 

2.  What  kinds  of  trees  are  suited  to  use  as  wind 
breaks? 


272  AGRICULTURE    FOR    YOUNG   FOLKS. 

3.  For  what  reasons  would  you  have  the  shelter 
belt  or  wind  break  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
building? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  What  is  the  cost  of  1500  willow  cuttings  at  75c. 
per  thousand  ? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  460  spruce  seedlings  at  $5.00 
per  hundred  ? 

3.  How  many  trees  will  be  required  to  set  three 
rows  20  rods  long — ^trees  4  feet  apart  in  the  row? 

4.  How  many  willow  cuttings,  will  be  required  to 
set  3  rows  60  rods  long,  cuttings  2  feet  apart  in  the  row? 

SANITATION. 

Healthfulness  of  the  Home. — The  first  thing  to  be 
considered  about  a  home  is  its  healthfulness.  No  mat- 
ter how  beautiful,  attractive  and  comfortable  a  house 
may  be,  if  it  is  not  a  healthful  place  in  which  to  live, 
no  one  who  may  exercise  a  choice  would  desire  to  live 
in  it.  One  who  is  building  a  new  house  may  select  a 
site  which  will  give  drainage,  ventilation  and  plenty  of 
sunshine.  One  who  is  buying  a  farm,  expecting  to  live 
in  the  house  already  upon  it,  would  do  well  to  consid- 
er the  healthfulness  of  the  situation  as  well  as  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil.  Many  who  find  themselves  in  unhealth- 
ful  homes  which  are  theirs  by  inheritance,  or  which  for 
some  reason  they  saw  fit  to  acquire,  may  often,  with 
but  little  labor  and  expense,  make  the  place  quite  as 
healthful  as  any  they  might  have  selected. 

Drainage  About  the  Home. — The  healthfulness  of  a 
farm  home  depends  first  of  all  upon  drainage.  There 
should  be  a  good  slope  away  from  the  house,  so  that 
the  cellar  and  grounds  around  the  house  may  be  dry. 
The  well  should  be  so  situated  that  no  surface  water, 
or  seepage  from  house,  barn  or  any  other  building,  can 
possibly  get  into  it  to  contaminate  the  water  during  any 
season  of  the  year.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
the  health  of  all  in  the  home  that  the  drinking  water 


SANITATION.  273 

be  kept  pure.  If  one  finds  that  he  is  living  in  a  house 
where  water  stands  in  the  cellar  and  the  yard  is  wet 
and  muddy,  he  may  be  sure  that  sanitary  conditions 
there  are  not  what  they  should  be.  A  system  of  drainage 
such  as  would  give  the  desired  result  should  be  care- 
fully planned  and  put  in.  An  open  ditch  could  be  made 
to  serve  the  purpose,  but  a  tile  .drain  is  preferable.  If 
it  isi  worth  while  to  drain  land  that  it  may  produce 
better  crops,  surely  it  is  worth  while  to  drain,  when  nec- 
essary, to  make  the  home  surroundings  more  healthful. 

Chickens,  turkeys  or  fowls  of  any  kind  should  not 
be  allowed  about  the  well  or  in  the  yard  immediately 
surrounding  the  house.  They  are  not  only  one  more 
means  of  carrying  dirt  to  the  house,  but  they  also  de- 
stroy grass.  If  a  good  lawn  can  be  maintained  about 
the  house,  it  helps  materially  in  preventing  dust  from 
blowing  into  the  house. 

House  flies  are  a  great  menace  to  health  as  vs^ell  as 
to  comfort.  If  there  is  disease  in  any  home  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, flies  may  carry  the  germs  on  their  legs  and 
bodies  and  so  infest  other  homes.  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  they  breed  to  a  great  extent  in  horse  manure. 
For  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  manure  should  not  be 
allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  yards  or  about  the  barn. 

Houses  should  be  vrell  screened  against  flies.  Re- 
movable wire  screens  are  the  most  desirable.  While  they 
may  be  a  little  expensive  at  first,  they  last  so  long  that 
their  yearly  cost  is  very  slight.  If  they  are  taken  down 
in  the  fall  and  carefully  put  away  for  the  winter,  and 
then  given  a  coat  of  thin  paint  before  they  are  put  up 
in  the  spring,  they  will  last  almost  indefinitely.  Where 
such  screens  cannot  be  had,  mosquito  netting  may  be 
used. 

Bacteria. — Even  when  the  outside  conditions  are  all 
that  they  should  be,  a  crusade  against  dust  and  germs 
must  be  kept  up  within.  A  few  years  ago  germs  and 
microbes  were  practically  unheard  of.  To-day  we  hear 
and  read  much  about  them,  and  are  just  boginiiing  to 
realize  their  influence.     There  are  a  number  of  terms  in 


274  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

common  use  to-day  which  it  may  be  well  to  understand. 
We  often  hear  or  read  about  bacteria.  They  are  very 
simple,  minute  organisms  belonging  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  They  live  in  soil  and  water  and  on  the  skin 
of  man  and  beasts.  There  are  hundreds  of  species  of 
them.  Some  species  are  helpful — such  as  cause  decay 
of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  and  so  enrich  the  soil — 
other  species  produce  disease.     Protozoa  is  another  term 


Fig-.  106. — A  farm  home  so  situated  as  to  afford  good  drainage. 
Shade  trees  are  an  excellent  addition  to  a  home,  but  should  not 
be  so  close  or  so  thick  as  to  prevent  a  good  circulation  of  air 
and  the  entrance  of  sunshine  to  the  rooms. 


we  often  hear.  It  is  applied  to  the  simple,  minute 
oi-ganisms  belonging  to  the  animal  kingdom.  These  or- 
ganisms, so  small  that  they  can  be  seen  only  with  a 
microscope,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  are  called 
germs,  microbes  and  micro-organisms. 

It  is  now  known  that  these  germs  or  microbes  cause 
many  of  our  contagious  diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis 
(consumption),  diphtheria,  and  typhoid  fever.    The  mis- 


SANITATION  APPLIED  TO  HOUSEHOLD  DUTIES.  275 

tressj  of  a  household  must  remember  that  she  cleans 
her  house,  not  only  that  it  may  look  well-kept,  but  more 
especially  to  make  it  sanitary.  While  dust  and  dirt 
in  themselves  may  not  be  directly  harmful,  they  are 
likely  to  become  hotbeds  for  disease  germs. 
Questions : 

1.  What  may  often  be  done  to  improve  unsianitary 
conditions  if  they  exist? 

2.  Why  should  not  fowls  be  allowed  about  the  house  ? 

3.  What  are  the  objections  to  house  flies,  and  how 
may  they  be  kept  out? 

4.  Explain  the  terms  bacteria,  protozoa,  and  germs 
or  microbes. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  sq.  ft.  of  wire  netting  are  required 
to  make  a  screen  for  a  window  30  in.  by  60  in.  ?  What 
would  the  screen  cost  at  2c.  per  sq.  ft.? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  screen  at  2c.  per  sq.  ft.  for 
adoorSft.  by  7ft.? 

3.  Screen  window  frames  are  usually  made  out  of 
lumber  1  in.  thick  and  2%  in.  wide.  How  much  lum- 
ber is  required  to  make  a  full  size  screen  frame  for  a 
window  30  in.  by  60  in.?  What  is  the  lumber  worth  at 
$35.00  per  thousand  feet  ? 

4.  Screen  door  frames  are  usually  made  of  lumber 
114  in.  thick  and  3  in.  wide.  How  much  lumber  is  re- 
quired to  make  a  screen  door  frame  3  ft.  by  7  ft.  ?  What 
is  the  cost  of  the  lumber  at  $35.00  per  thousand  feet? 

5.  What  is  the  cost  of  material  to  make  screens  for 
a  house  having  3  doors  and  14  windows?  (Use  sizes 
and  prices  given  above.) 

SANITATION    APPLIED   TO    HOUSEHOLD    DUTIES. 

Health  on  the  Farm. — When  people  become  sick,  they 
often  go  to  a  sanitarium  or  a  hospital,  w^here  they  pay 
from  ten  to  fifty  dollars  a  week  for  treatment,  consisit- 
ing  of  pure  air,  sunlight  and  wholesome  food.  All  of  these 
are  free  and  abundant  on  the  farm,  if  reasonble  pre- 
cautions are   taken  and   a   few  simple   rules  of  sanita- 


276  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

tion  and  health  observed,  some  of  which  are  here  sug- 
gested. 

Sweeping. — In  sweeping,  the  object  is  to  remove 
dust  and  dirt.  Therefore  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
the  dust  down.  If  a  carpet  is  to  be  swept,  it  should  first 
be  sprinkled  with  tea  leaves,  moist  bits  of  paper  or 
something  similar.  If  smooth,  uncarpeted  floors  are  to 
be  swept,  they  may  first  be  sprinkled  with  moist  saw- 
dust. Sawdust  and  dirt  are  then  easily  removed  with 
a  soft,  brush-like  broom,  without  raising  the  dust.  Such 
floors  may  also  be  swept  with  a  broom  slipped  into  a 
soft  woolen  bag.  It  is  well  to  moisten  the  bag  with 
kerosene.  Rugs  and  draperies  should  be  shaken  out  of 
doors.  These  methods  not  only  insure  clean  houses, 
but  they  also  protect  the  worker.  To  breathe  dust  dur- 
ing sweeping  period,  day  after  day,  is  unplea^sant  and 
quite  likely  to  cause  catarrh  or  throat  or  lung  trouble. 

Dusting.^ — In  dusting,  the  same  object  holds  true  as 
in  sweeping — namely,  to  actually  remove  the  dust  and 
not  to  merely  dislodge  it  from  conspicuous  places.  The 
woodwork  and  furniture  of  a  room  should  be  carefully 
wiped  off  with  a  soft,  loosely-woven  cloth,  and  the  cloth 
shaken  out  of  doors  frequently.  Some  people  prefer 
the  cloth  moistened  with  kerosene  or  furniture  oil. 

Washing  Dishes. — In  washing  dishes,  use  plenty  of 
hot  water  and'  change  the  water  often.  Soap,  borax 
or  any  preparation  that  will  soften  the  water  and  re- 
move grease,  may  be  used  in  the  wash  water.  Scald 
the  dishes  with  an  abundance  of  boiling  water,  and  dry 
them  with  a  clean  towel.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot 
be  put  on  the  importance  of  clean  dish  cloths  and  dish 
towels.  As  dust  and  germs  are  constantly  flying  in  the 
air,  the  dishes  between  meals  should  be  kept  in  a  tight 
cupboard  if  possible. 

Washing  Clothes. — ^Perhaps  it  is  quite  generally 
thought  that  clothes  are  washed  merely  to  remove  the 
dirt  and  so  restore  them  to  their  normal  appearance. 
There  is  a  much  deeper  reason  for  the  old  established 
wash-day  than  that.     The  skin  helps  to  regulate  body 


SANITATION  APPLIED  TO  HOUSEHOLD  DUTIES.  277 

heat.    When  the  temperature  becomes  too  high,  the  body 
is  cooled  off  by  the  evaporation  of  perspiration. 

The  skin  also  helps  to  throw  off  some  of  the  body's 
waste  products  in  the  form  of  secretions.  The  perspira- 
tion and  secretions  are  absorbed  by  the  clothing,  especi- 
ally by  the  under  garments.  Bits  of  skin  are  constant- 
ly being  worn  off,  and  they  ajso  find  their  way  into 
the  meshes  of  the  clothing.  After  the  garments  have 
been  worn  some  time,  their  pores  become  filled  and  the 
garments  lose  their  absorptive  power.  In  such  con- 
dition they  cannot  assist  the  skin  in  removing  these  se- 
ci'etions  of  the  body,  but  instead  are  a  hindrance.  A 
thorough  washing  removes  the  dirt  and  opens  the  pores 
of  the  clothes,  and  the  drying  restores  their  power  of 
absorption.  Then,  too,  where  waste  products  accumu- 
late in  clothing  bacteria  are  apt  to  be  present.  Wash- 
ing is  necessary  to  remove  bacteria,  aind  all  garments 
that  can  be  boiled  without  injury  should  be  boiled  for 
at  least  twenty  minutes  each  time  they  are  washed,  to 
kill  bacteria.  Planging  clothes  in  the  air  and  sunshine 
helps  to  accomplish  the  same  object. 
Questions : 

1.  What  is  it  that  may  be  had  in  abundance  on  the 
farm,  that  one  sometimes  pays  dearly  for  in  a  sanitarium? 

2.  What  is  the  object  of  sweeping  and  dusting? 
How  is  this  object  best  accomplished? 

3.  For  what  reasons  are  clothes  washed? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  Dishes  must  be  washed  in  the  average  home  3 
times  per  day,  365  days  in  the  year.  If  30  minutes  are 
required  after  each  meal  to  wash  the  dishes  for  a  family 
of  five,  how  many  hours  of  time  are  required  in  one  year  ? 

2.  If  by  the  addition  of  such  conveniences  as  a  sink, 
hot  water,  etc.,  10  minutes  could  be  saved  each  time 
the  dishes  were  washed,  how  much  time  would  be  saved 
in  a  year? 

3.  If  ten  hours  are  spent  each  week  washing  and 
ironing  for  a  family  of  five,  how  many  hours  of  hard 
work  could  be  saved  in  a  year  if  the  washing  and  iron- 
ing were  done  at  a  laundr>  ? 


27S 


AGRICULTURE    I^'OR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


VENTILATION. 

Need  of  Air. — Man  or  animal  may  live  some  time 
without  food,  even  without  water,  but  neither  can  live 
more  than  a  few  minutes  without  air.  Air  once  breathed 
has  lost  much  of  its  sustaining  and  invigorating  element. 
Mr.  King,  in  his  book  on  ventilation,  in  dealing  with 
this  point,  gives  as  illustration,  instances  of 'horses  suf- 
fering from  breathing  impoverished  air  while  working 
in  the  open  field.  This,  he  says,  may  occur  where  three 
horses,  driven  abreast,  so  hold  their  heads  thajt  the  mid- 
dle horse  must  breathe  the  air  thrown  out  by  the  other 
two  horses.     The  air  once  breathed  is  adulterated  with 

carbon  dioxide,  and 
may,  usually  does,  con- 
tain numerous  disease 
germs. 

Effect  of  Insufficient 
Air. — When  our  bodies 
need  food  we  are 
conscious  of  an  uncom- 
fortable sensation,  that 
of  hunger  or  thirst. 
We  understand  Na- 
ture's demands  and 
seek  to  satisfy  them, 
but  her  calls  for  fresh 
air  are  not  always  so 
well  understood  or  so 
promptly  answered. 
We  often  remain  many 
hours  in  a  room  not  properly  ventilated,  where  we  breathe 
and  re-breathe  the  air,  and  wonder  why  we  feel  so  drowsy 
and  dull.  Or  we  sleep  at  night  in  a  room  not  sufficiently 
supplied  with  fresh  air,  and  then  wonder  why  we  arise  in 
the  morning  with  a  headache  or  a  general  feeling  of  weari- 
ness. Of  course,  the  dullness  and  the  headache  may  be 
due  to  some  other  cause,  but  too  often  we  wrongly  at- 
tribute such  sensations  to  other  causes.  Unless  we  are 
perfectly  certain  that  we  have  been  breathing  fresh  air, 


Fig.  107. — Glass  fuH  of  water  in- 
verted in  a  saucer.  The  atmos- 
pheric pressure  at  aa  holds  the 
water  up  in  the  g-lass.  Air  will 
hold  a  column  of  water  30  ft.  high 
in  this  way. 


VENTILATION.  279 

it  would  surely  be  wise  to  consider  such  sensations  as 
Nature's  demand  for  fresh  air. 

We  supply  our  bodies  with  nourishment  by  eating 
and  drinking.  The  only  way  of  supplying  them  with 
oxygen,  the  element  without  which  we  could  live  only 
a  few  minutes,  is  by  breathing  air  containing  a  large 
proportion  of  oxygen. 

Amount  of  Air  Needed. — An  average  man  breathes 
about  twenty  cubic  feet  of  a|ir  in  one  hour,  and  animals 
about  the  same  in  proportion  to  their  weight.  It  would 
not  take  long  for  even  a  few  people  to  breathe  all  the 
air  of  a  small  room,  especially  if  a  fire  and  a  light  were 
also  consuming  oxygen.  We  can  then  readily  see  how 
soon  eight  or  ten  head  of  cattle  would  breathe  all  the  air 
of  an  ill  ventilated  barn. 

But  long  before  all  the  air  has  passed  through  either 
human  lungs,  or,  in  case  of  a  bam,  through  the  lungs 
of  animals,  it  has  become  contaminated  by  the  fir»t 
few  breaths,  so  after  the  first  few  minutes  we  are  breath- 
ing adulterated  air — fresh  air  mixed  with  air  once 
breathed.  The  foul  air  is  charged  with  water,  carbon 
djioxide  ajnd  germs,  and  is  heavier  than  the  fresher- air; 
so  it  gradually  settles  to  the  floor,  thus  making  it  im- 
possible for  us  to  get  the  fresh  air,  even  if  some  still 
remains  near  the  ceiling.  For  this  reason  it  is  impera- 
tive that  we  have  adequate  means  in  both  houses  and 
barns  for  the  foul  air  to  escape  and  the  fresh,  life-giving 
air  to  enter. 

Air  Pressure. — Ventilation,  which  is  simply  a  regu- 
lated movement  of  air,  is  brought  about  by  the  weight 
of  the  air,  or  atmospheric  pressure.  That  air  really  does 
weigh  something  is  illustrated  by  the  following  simple 
experiment.    Try  it: 

Fill  a  glass  with  water  and  turn  a  saucer  down  over 
it.  See  Fig.  107.  Invert  the  glass,  holding  the  saucer  firm- 
ly in  place.  It  will  be  seen  that  only  a  little  water  es- 
caped, merely  enough  to  reach  to  the  edge  of  the  glass. 
The  water  does  not  escape,  because  of  the  pressure  of  the 


280  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

air  on  the  water  in  the  saucer,  while  the  bottom  of  the 
glass  supports  the  air  above  the  water.  If  you  were  to 
chip  a  little  hole  in  the  bottom  or  side  of  the  inverted 
glass,  the  water  would  immediately  run  out,  because  the 
air  pressure  would  then  be  equal  both  inside  and  outside 
of  the  glass. 
Questions : 

1.  In  what  condition  is  air  after  it  has  once  been 
breathed  ? 

2.  About  how  much  air  does  a  person  breathe  in  an 
hour? 

3.  Explain  how  all  the  air  of  a  room  may  soon  be- 
come contaminated. 

4.  Perform  and  write  up  the  experiment  showing  the 
pressure  of  air. 

Arithmetiic : 

1.  A  man  needs  20  cu.  ft.  of  air  per  hour,  how  much 
does  he  need  in  8  hours?  How  much  air  will  two  people 
need  while  sleeping  in  a  room  8  hrs. '/ 

2.  If  one  needs  20  cu.  ft.  of  air  in  an  hour,  how 
much  will  40  children  need  in  6  hours  ? 

3r.  How  many  cubic  feet  of  air  in  a  room  10x10  and 
8  feet  high? 

PHYSICS   OF  VENTILATION. 

Ventilation  is  Simple. — We  have  learned  that  people 
and  animals  need  pure  and  fresh  air  in  order  that  they 
may  be  healthy.  Supplying  this  fresh  air  is  much  simpler, 
especially  in  the  country,  than  is  generally  supposed. 
To  the  boy  or  girl  who  has  not  studied  physics  or  physi- 
cal geography,  it  may  not  be  plain  at  first.  It  is  the 
object  of  this  lesson  to  show,  by  facts  that  pupils  already 
know,  how  pure  air  may  be  brought  into  a  room  and  foul 
air  expelled. 

Air  Expands  When  Warmed. — It  is  known  that  air 
moves  about  easily,  and  th^it  it  presses  down,  due  to  its 
weight,  upon  the  earth.  If  for  any  reason  the  pressure  is 
not  the  same  on  all  sides,  the  air  will  move  in  the  direc- 


PHYSICS    OF   VENTILATION. 


281 


tion  of  the  least  pressure.  Every  pupil  knows  that  when 
a  fire  is  lighted  in  a  stove  the  heated  air  and  smoke  will 
rush  up  the  chimney.  When  air  is  heated  it  expands, 
hence  becomes  lighter.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  heat- 
ing a  bottle  so  that  the  air  in  it  will  be  quite  hot.  Then 
place  your  thumb  or  the  palm  of  your  hand  over  the 
top  of  the  bottle  and  allow  the  bottle  to  cool.  Cooling 
may  be  hastened  by  putting  the  bottle  in  cold  water, 
keeping  your  thumb  or  hand  firmly  over  the  top.  As 
the  bottle  and  the  air  it  contains  cool,  you  will  feel  a 


108. 


109. 


Fig.  lOS. — Method  of  ventilating  a  school  room  wlien  fresh  air  is  tak- 
en in  through  the  wall  near  the  ceiling.  Air  movement  indicated 
by  arrows. 

Fig.  109. — Method  of  ventilating  a  school  room  when  fresh  air  is  tak- 
en in  under  the  stove,  where  it  is  heated,  then  diffused  through 
the  room.     Arrows  indicate  movement  of  air. 


pressure  on  the  back  of  your  thumb  or  hand,  which 
will  seem  to  be  sucked  into  the  bottle.  This  indicates 
that  as  the  air  in  the  bottle  cools  it  contracts  and  occu- 
pies less  space.  It  is  evident  then  that  cool  air  occupies 
less  space  than  warm  air,  hence  the  statement  that  air 
expands  and  becomes  lighter  when  it  is  heated. 

How  Air  Moves. — ^Because  air  expands)  when  it  be- 
comes warm,  it  is  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  The 
air  moves  somewhat  as  a  pair  of  balances,  the  heavier 
end  going  down  and  the  lighter  end  going  up.     When 


282  AGRICULTLTlE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

some  of  the  air  is  heated  and  some  remains  cool,  it  gets 
out  of  balance,  and  the  heavier  cool  air  pressing  down 
around  the  lighter  warm  air  forces  the  warm  air  up- 
ward. Hence,  what  we  call  draught  in  the  chimney  is 
caused  by  the  heavier  cool  air  outside  forcing,  by  its 
greater  weight,  the  light,  warm  air  upward. 

Object  of  Ventilation. — The  problem  in  ventilation 
is  not  to  remove  the  warm  air  from  within  buildings 
and  let  in  cool  air,  but  to  remove  foul  air  and  replace 
it  with  fresh  air  without  causing  a  draught.  To  ex- 
plain this  the  principles  explained  above  must  be  made 
use  of.  Also  the  fact  that  foul  air  is  heavier  than  pure 
air  and  is  usually  found  near  the  floor  of  the  room. 

Ventilation  Flue. — A  stove  with  dampers  open  is  very 
good  for  taking  foul  air  from  a  room,  as  it  takes  air 
from  near  the  floor.  When  stoves  are  not  used  for  heat- 
ing, and  to  provide  ventilation  Avhen  stoves  are  not  in 
use,  a  double  flue  chimney  should  be  built,  with  one  flue 
opening  near  the  floor  to  remove  the  foul  air,  and  the 
other  flue  to  carry  the  smoke  from  the  stove  or  furnace. 
The  heat  in  the  smoke  flue  warms  the  ventilating  flue 
and  aids  in  the  circulation  of  air.  In  this  way  foul  air 
is  removed  from  near  the  floor,  while  warm  air,  which 
naturally  rises  near  the  ceiling,  is  not  removed  until 
it  becomes  foul  and  settles  to  the  floor. 

Fresh  Air  Supply. — To  supply  fresh  air  is  very  sim- 
ple in  rooms  heated  by  the  furnace,  as  the  fresh  air 
is  brought  in  from  outside,  heated  about  the  furnace 
and  forced  into  the  rooms.  In  buildings  heated  with 
stoves,  steam  or  hot  water,  air  must  be  brought  direct- 
ly to  the  room  from  outside,  ajnd  the  object  is  to  do 
this  without  causing  a  draught  of  cool  air  on  the  oc- 
cupants of  the  room.  If  this  were  not  the  case  it  would 
be  a  simple  matter  to  open  a  door  or  a  window  and 
let  in  all  the  air  needed. 

There  are  two  good  methods  of  letting  fresh  air  in- 
to rooms.  The  first  and  simpler  is  to  let  it  in  near  the 
ceiling,  as  shown  in  Fig.  108,  where  it  Avill  spread  out 
over  the  room  and  gradually  settle  through  the  warm 


A   GARDEN.  283 

air,  and  as  it  becomes  foul  is  drawn  out  through  the 
stove  or  ventilating  flue  from  near  the  floor.  Another 
method,  one  frequently  used  in  schools,  is  to  have  a 
sheet  iron  jacket  about  the  stove.  Air  is  let  in  under 
the  stove,  is  warmed  and  rises  between  the  stove  and 
jacket  to  near  the  ceiling,  where  it  spreads  out  over  the 
room  and  is  drawn  from  near  the  floor,  as  in  the  other 
case.  See  Fig.  109. 
Questions : 

1.  How  can  you  prove  that  air  expands  when  heat- 
ed, and  is  lighter  than  cool  air? 

2.  What  causes  air  to  move  up  a  chimney? 

3.  "What  is  the  object  of  ventilators? 

4.  Describe  two  good  methods  of  getting  fresh  air 
into  a  room. 

Aritlimetic : 

1.  A  cow  requires  about  115  cu.  ft.  of  air  per  hour, 
how  much  does  she  require  per  day  ? 

2.  If  a  cow  requires  115  cu.  ft.  of  air  per  hour, 
how  many  cu.  ft.  of  air  do  20  cows  need  in  24  hours  ? 

3.  A  barn  32  ft.  by  60  ft.  will  shelter  40  cows.  If 
the  ceiling  is  8  ft.  high  and  each  cow  requires  115  cu. 
ft.  of  air  per  hour,  how  long  will  it  take  the  40  cows 
to  breathe  all  of  the  air  in  the  barn  once  ? 

A  GARDEN. 

Value. — A  garden  is  a  very  small  but  important  part 
of  a  farm.  After  the  long  winter,  during  which  people 
have  lived  largely  on  bread,  meat  and  canned  vegetables 
and  fruits,  there  is  nothing  more  delightful  than  to 
get  the  fresh  vegetables  from  the  garden.  Fresh  fruits 
and  vegetables  are  the  most  healthful  of  any  of  the 
foods.  They  are  succulent,  easily  digested^  palatable 
and  nutritious. 

A  variety  of  good  vegetables  and  fruits  means  much 
to  every  housewife,  who  must  plan  and  prepare  at  least 
one  thousand  meals  during  the  year.  If  she  has  at 
hand  an  abundance   of  fresh  vegetables  and  fruits  for 


284 


AGRICULTURE   FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


summer  use,  ahd  of  the  same  canned  for  winter,  the 
question  of  preparing  suitable  and  healthful  meals  is 
greatly  simplified. 

For  the  boy  or  girl  who  wishes  to  help  his  mother,  and 
at  the  same  time  learn  a  great  deal  about  soil  and  how 
to  cultivate  it ;  about  plants  and  how  to  grow  them,  there 
is  nothing  on  the  farm  that  offers  a  greater  opportunity 
than  the  garden.  A  very  few  minutes  of  well  directed 
effort  will  work  wonders  in  the  production  of  many  vege- 
tables, such  as  radishes,  onions,  etc. 

Income  from  a  garden. — Some  boys  and  girls,  living 
near  town,  may  earn  considerable  by  caring  for  a  few  va- 
rieties of  vegetables  and  selling  the  surplus  in  town.  But 
every  boy  or  girl  has  a  good  market  for  as  much  as  he  can 

raise,  right  at  home.  He 
may  not,  and  perhaps 
should  not,  expect  to  re- 
ceive money  for  what 
he  raises  for  home  use, 
but  he  may  rightly  con- 
sider that  he  earns  all 
that  the  vegetables 
would  bring  if  sold. 
Vegetables  and  fruits 
have  a  value,  whether 
sold  or  used  at  home. 
Some  farmers  seem  to  think  that  their  living  costs  noth- 
ing. It  is  true  they  do  not  pay  out  money  for  much  of 
their  food ;  but  if  they  would  consider,  for  example,  the 
vegetables  used  worth  what  might  be  received  for  them  if 
they  were  sold,  every  farmer  would  see  what  is  used  from 
a  garden  alone,  during  a  summer,  amounts  to  consider- 
able, and  that  a  garden  is  a  very  important  part  of  a  farm. 
Work  is  more  pleasant  when  we  have  an  object  in  view, 
understand  what  we  are  doing,  and  are  looking  forward 
to  definite  results.  The  boys  and  girls  may  like  to  keep  an 
account  of  the  amount  and  value  of  garden  produce  used, 
to  see  how  much  a  garden  is  really  worth.  Pulling  weeds 


Fig.  110. — Flat  onion  on  left,  globe  on- 
ion on  right.  Globe  onions  yield 
more  than  flat  ones  and  usually 
sell  better. 


A   GARDEN.  285 

may  prove  less  tedious  to  a  boy  who  is  thinking  of  how, 
by  hisi  efforts,  he  is  increasing  a  yield  which  he  is  going 
to  record. 

An  account  with  the  garden. — To  keep  an  account  of 
the  garden  produce,  any  note  book  of  convenient  size  may 
be  used.  Devote  one  or  more  pages  to  each  variety  of  veg- 
etables. Each  boy  or  girl  should  consult  his  parents  and 
agree  upon  a  price  for  each  variety  of  vegetables — such 
as  three  cents  per  dozen  for  radishes  and  green  onions, 
one-half  a  cent  a  head  for  lettuce,  fifteen  cents  a  peck 
for  peas,  string  beans,  etc.  On  the  page  of  the  account 
book  devoted  to  radishes,  record  the  price  agreed  upon 
for  radishes;  and  it  might  make  it  more  interesting  to 
record  also  the  date  when  the  seed  was  sown. 

As  s)Oon  as  any  variety  begins  to  yield,  put  down  on 
the  page  devoted  to  it  the  date  it  was  first  ready  for  use 
and  the  amount  gathered.  During  the  summer  each 
boy  or  girl  will  find  out  from  his  mother  at  night  what 
vegetables  were  used  that  day  and  the  amount  of  each 
gathered,  either  for  immediate  use  or  for  canning,  and 
record  the  date  and  amount. 

In  the  fall,  when  everything  has  been  gathered  from 
the  garden,  your  note  book  will  show  the  amount  and 
value  of  each  variety  used,  sold,  or  stored.  The  sum  of  the 
values  of  all  the  varieties  of  vegetables  will  be  the  value 
of  the  garden. 

Questions : 

1.  Why  is  a  garden  important  1 

2.  How  does  a  good  garden  help  the  mother? 

3.  How  is  it  of  value  to  a  boy  or  girl  ? 

4.  How  may  we  find  the  value  of  a  garden  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  dozen  carrots  in  3  rows  121  ft.  long,  if 
the  carrots  are  2  in.  apart  in  the  row?  How  much  are 
they  worth  at  5  cts.  per  dozen  1 

2.  "What  part  of  an  acre  is  occupied  by  3  rows  of 
carrots  121  ft.  long,  if  each  row  occupies  a  space  12  in. 
wide?     (There  are  43560  sq.  ft.  in  an  acre.) 


286  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

3.  If  a  boy  spends  2  hours  each  week  for  8  weeks 
in  caring  for  3  rows  of  radishes  121  ft.  long,  how  many 
hours  will  he  spend?  How  much  is  his  time  worth  at 
10  cts.  per  hour? 

PLAN  OF  GARDEN. 

Location. — As  many  trips  are  made  to  a  garden  dur- 
ing the  summer,  it  should  be  so  located  that  access  to 
it  from  the  house  is  easy  and  convenient;  and,  instead 
of  being  located  in  some  little  corner  where  most  of 
the  work  must  be  done  by  hand,  it  should  be  accessible 
from  the  barn  or  field,  so  thajt  most  of  the  work  may 
be  done  with  a  horse  and  cultivator.  A  good  place 
for  a  garden  is  on  a  south  slope  sheltered  by  a  grove. 

Size. — There  is  waste  land  on  most  farms;  and,  as 
long  asi  this  is  true,  there  is  no  excuse  for  skimping 
the  garden.  The  garden  should  be  of  sufficient  size 
that  room  may  be  given  to  each  variety  of  vegetable, 
to  permit  of  cultivation  with  horse  labor.  A  strip  about 
a  rod  wide  at  each  end  of  the  garden  should  be  seeded 
to  grass,  on  which  to  turn  when  plowing  and  culti- 
vating. 

Soil. — The  soil  for  a  garden  should  be  very  rich  and 
productive.  More  work  is  required  per  acre  on  gar- 
den than  on  field  crops,  hence  the  importance  of  get- 
ting good  crops  to  pay  for  the  labor.  If  grain  is  sown 
on  soil  that  will  produce  but  half  a  crop,  six  to  ten 
dollars  an  acre  is  lost,  while  if  but  half  a  crop  is  raised 
in  a  garden,  owing  to  the  poor  condition  of  the  soil, 
many  times  as  much  is  lost,  because  a  good  garden  may 
yield  from  $100  to  $500  worth  of  produce  per  acre. 

Preparation  of  Soil. — Land  for  the  garden  should 
be  heavily  manured.  From  twenty  to  fifty  loads  per 
acre  may  be  used.  Well  rotted  ma^^ure  is  best,  but  oth- 
er manure  will  do.  It  is  well  to  plow  in  the  fall,  so 
that  the  land  will  settle  down  and  be  less  likely  to  dry 
out.  Fall  plowing  is  also  helpful  in  destroying  danger- 
ous insects  and  worms.     Early  spring  plowing  will  do; 


PLAN   OF  GARDEN. 


287 


but,  in  either  case,  much  disking  and  harrowing  should 
be  given  the  land  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  make  the  soil 
very  fine  and  mellow  before  the  garden  seeds  are  plant- 
ed.    This  early  harrowing  helps  to   warm  up   the  soil 

and  kills  many  weeds;  also  re- 
tards the  evaporation  of  mois- 
ture. It  is  a  good  plan  to  use 
a  planker  or  pulverizer  to  in- 
sure the  breaking  up  of  all 
lumps,  as  securing  a  fine  surface 
soil  makes  planting  and  culti- 
vating much  easier. 

Arrangement. — The  rows 
should  extend  the  long  way  of 
the  garden.  Vegetables  which 
are  planted  in  rows  close  to- 
gether (12  to  20  inches)  as  on- 
ions, radishes,  carrots,  beets,  let- 
tuce, turnips,  etc.,  should  be  on 
one  side  of  the  garden.  Cab- 
bages, beans,  peas,  sweet  corn, 
potatoes,  etc.,  with  rows  2>^  to 
8^  feet  apart,  should  be  to- 
gether. Such  running  vines  as 
squashes,  melons,  and  cucum- 
bers, which  require  rows  five 
to  seven  feet  apart,  should  be 
together  in  another  part  of  the 
garden.  This  arrangement  al- 
lows the  best  use  of  the  horse 
cultivator.  If  a  row  of  onions 
and  a  row  of  potatoes  were 
planted  side  by  side,  a  good  cul- 
tivation of  the  potatoes  would 
be  likely  to  cover  the  onions. 
This  plan  also  permits  the  best 
use  of  the  small  hand  drill  in  planting  and  of  the  small 
hand  cultivator  in  cultivating.  Everything  possible 
should  be  done,  in  the  arrangement,  planning  and  prepa- 


S  J 

GRASS 


±"  ig.  Hi, — Garden  arranged 
for  convenient  cultiva- 
tion. 1.  Rows  14  in.  to 
18  in.  apart  for  onions, 
lettuce,  beets,  radislies, 
turnips,  carrots,  etc.  2. 
Rows  about  six  feet 
apart  for  cucumbers, 
melons,  etc.  3.  Rows  3 
feet  apart  for  sweet  corn, 
potatoes.  4.  Rows  4  feet 
apart  for  strawberries, 
tomatoes,  etc.  5.  Aspara- 
gus 3  or  4  feet  from  oth- 
er plants.  6.  Rows  about 
6  feet  apart  for  berry- 
bushes. 


288  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

ration  of  the  garden,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  labor  re- 
quired to  plant,  cultivate  and  harvest  the  crop. 

Questions : 

1.  For  what  reasons  should  the  garden  be  located 
near  the  house? 

2.  What  can  you  say  about  the  soil  and  its  proper 
preparation  for  the  garden? 

3.  What  arrangement  would  you  make  of  the  dif- 
ferent crops  in  planting  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  cabbages  can  one  raise  on  an  acre,  if 
they  are  planted  2  ft.  apart  each  way? 

2.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  10  rods  wide 
and  1(3  rods  long? 

3.  How  many  rows  of  onions,  planted  with  the  rows 
1  foot  apart,  can  be  planted  on  a  field  10  rods  wide? 
If  the  field  is  16  rods  long,  how  long  will  all  of  the 
rows  of  onions  be  ? 


CHAPTER  XII. 
FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM. 

VALUE  OF   FRUIT   IN  THE   DIET. 

Succulent  Food.— That  fruit  is  a  healthful  form  of 
food  is  recognized  by  all,  yet  there  are  many  people 
living  on  farms  in  the  Northwest  who  seldom  have  as 
much  fruit  as  is  necessary  for  the  health  and  comfort 


Fig.  112.— An  exhibit  of  fine  apples. 

of  the  family.  The  need  of  succulent  food  for  animals 
is  met  by  supplying  ensilage  or  roots,  yet  in  many  homes 
the  need  of  succulence  in  the  family  diet,  though  as 
easily  supplied,  is  appalrently  not  recognized. 


290  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

Need  of  Fruit. — The  human  body  requires  for  proper 
maintenance,  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  proper 
proportion.  Most  foods  contain  these  three  nutrients, 
though  but  few  foods  contain  them  in  the  proper  pro- 
portion. It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  eat  more  than  one 
kind  of  food  in  order  to  get  the  nutrients  needed. 

The  foods  containing  a  large  proportion  of  protein, 
or  tissue-building  and  repairing  material,  are  lean  meat, 
milk,  eggs,  cheese,  nuts,  and  legumes  (peas  and  beans). 
Foods  rich  in  carbohydrates,  or  energy  or  heat-produc- 
ing elements,  are  the  cereals,  starchy  vegetables  (as  pota- 
toes and  green  corn)  and  sweet  fruits.  Foods  rich  in 
fat,  the  more  concentrated  form  of  heat  and  energy-pro- 
ducing food,  are  fat  meats,  egg  yolk,  cream,  butter,  etc. 
In  addition  to  the  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats,  one 
needs  some  food  to  give  succulence  and  bulk. 

Dietaries. — A  breakfast  of  bacon  and  eggs,  warmed- 
over  potatoes,  toast  and  coffee,  supplies  protein,  car- 
bohydrates and  fa.t,  but  lacks  the  bulky,  succulent  food 
that  prevents  over-eating  of  the  other  foods.  Apples 
or  oranges,  where  fresh  fruit  can  be  had,  or  a  dish  of 
apple,  cranberry  or  prune  sauce,  if  fresh  fruit  cannot 
be  had,  eaten  at  the  beginning  of  the  meal,  would  make 
the  breakfast  more  healthful  and  also,  perhaps,  more 
palatable  to  the  majority  of  people. 

A  dinner  of  cream  tomato  soup,  pot  roast,  brown 
gravy,  potatoes,  bread,  butter,  etc.,  followed  by  a  dessert 
of  suet  pudding  or  mince  pie,  is  too  heaivy  a  meal,  or  at 
least  heavier  than  any  one  needs.  The  soup,  meat  and 
potatoes  furnish  the  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  in 
sufficient  amount.  All  that  is  needed  is  the  juicy,  bulky 
food.  This  might  be  supplied  by  the  addition  of  a  suc- 
culent vegetable,  as  cabbage,  turnips,  onions,  etc.,  or  by 
a  dessert  of  baked  apples,  canned  peaches  or  pears,  etc. 
It  is  well  to  follow  a  hearty  meal  with  a  light  dessert, 
as  fresh  or  canned  fruit,  while  a  hearty  dessert  may  often 
supply  the  nutrients  lacking  in  a  light  meal. 


VAT^UE   OF  FRUIT   IN  THE    DIET.  291 

The  supner  following  the  breakfast  and  dinner  given 
above  need  consist  of  nothing  more  than  cream  toast, 
a  dish  of  sauce  and  ginger  bread,  or  scalloped  potatoes, 
bread,  butter  and  preserves. 

Fruit  Supply. — Many  families  depend  entirely  upon 
wild  fruit ;  and  the  scarcity  -of  it  some  years,  and  the 
difficulty  in  procuring  it  a'lny  year,  make  it  a  luxury  to 
be  used  only  occasionally  or  to  be  saved  for  company. 
One  of  the  first  duties  of  the  head  of  a  family  is  to  sup- 
ply a  comfortable,  healthful  living  for  those  in  his  care. 
Good  vegetables  and  fruits  should  be  considered  essen- 
tial, and  "time  spent  in  providing  them  should  not  be 
considered  lost.  Often  a  man  might,  by  giving  a  little 
time  to  his  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens,  provide  his 
family  with  an  abundance  of  such  food,  and  thereby  in- 
sure a  good,  healthful  living.  Is  it  not  just  as  well  for 
a  man  thus  to  provide  food  for  his  family  as  to  raise  a 
few  more  tons  of  hay  or  pounds  of  pork  to  sell  to  se- 
cure such  food? 

Advantages  of  Home-Grown  Products. — The  home- 
grown vegetables  and  fruits  surpass  any  that  can  be 
purchased;  for  during  the  summer  they  may  be  had  clean 
and  fresh  from  the  galrden,  and  are  very  different  from 
the  dusty,  wilted  articles  which  are  often  all  the  markets 
have  to  offer.  Such  fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  are  equal- 
ly as  much  better  than  the  market  product  when  canned 
as  when  fresh. 

Another  great  advantage  in  raising  fruit  and  vegeta- 
bles is  that  the  family  will  then  be  well  supplied,  while 
there  are  few  farm  families  that  will  pay  the  necessary 
price  to  secure  the  amount  needed,  if  it  must  be  purchased. 

Every  housekeeper  knows  the  value  of  a  good  supply 
of  fresh  vegetables  and  fruit  during  the  summer,  and 
of  the  canned  product  for  winter  use.  The  jellies  and 
preserves  form  a  healthful  and  palatable  dessert  art;  any 
time,  and  are  always  ready.     The  canned  vegetables  are 


292  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

soon  prepared  for  use  as  such,  or  are  quickly  converted 
into  soups. 

Canned  fruit  juice,  which  may  be  had  in  large  quanti- 
ties where  fruit  is  plentiful,  is  perhaps  the  most  appe- 
tizing and  healthful  drink  for  the  sick,  and  is  equally 
as  refreshing  for  those  who  are  well. 

Questions : 

1.  What  nutrients  does  the  human  body  require  for 
proper  maintenance  ? 

2.  "What  foods  are  largely  protein?  Carbohy- 
drates?    Fats? 

3.  What  kind  of  food  do  we  need  in  addition  to  the 
protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats? 

4.  What  class  of  foods  supply  bulk  and  succulence? 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  of  raising  fruit  for 
home  use  ? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  family  of  six  uses  1  qt.  of  canned  fruit  per 
day,  how  many  quarts  will  they  use  in  6  months  ? 

2.  If  a  family  of  six  uses  the  equivalent  of  1% 
quarts  of  fresh  fruit  per  day,  how  many  quarts  would 
be  required  to  supply  them  a  year?  How  much  are 
these  berries  worth  at  10c.  per  quart? 

3.  If  a  man  spends  5  hours  per  week  for  12  weeks 
caring  for  fruit,  to  produce  enough  fruit  for  a  family 
of  six  as  given  in  example  2,  how  many  hours  would  he 
spend?    What  is  his  time  wprth  at  15c.  per  hour? 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Adaptability. — The  strawberry  may  be  grown  in 
almost  any  locality,  from  the  far  north  to  the  extreme 
south.  It  is  the  most  widely  distributed  of  the  cultivated 
fruits,  and  perhaps  the  most  universally  popular. 

Varieties. — There  are  several  hundred  varieties  of 
strawberries  listed.  Some  varieties  are  particularly 
adapted  to  the  cooler  summers  and  to  the  soil  conditions 


STRAWBERRIES.  293 

of  the  northern  districts,  while  others  are  adapted  more 
particularly  to  the  southern  conditions.  At  least  one 
or  more  varieties  may  be  selected  for  any  district. 

There  are  varieties  of  strawberries  that  have  im- 
perfect or  pistillate  flowers,  and  varieties  that  have  per- 
fect flowers,  or  flowers  containing  both  stamens  and  pis- 
tils. The  perfect  may  be  distinguished  from  the  im- 
perfect only  by  the  flower.  When  buying  plants,  one 
must  depend  upon  the  knowledge  and  honesty  of  the 
dealer  to  secure  either  plants  with  perfect  flowers  or  a 
sufficient  number  of  them  to  properly  fertilize  the  pis- 
tillate flowers.  The  pistillate  varieties  are  often  the  best 
bearers,  and  are  not  objectionable  when  planted  with 
staminate  varieties,  but  are  fruitless  when  planted  alone. 
However,  to  simplify  matters  it  is  perhaps  wise  for  the 
amateur  to  select  from  the  perfect  varieties. 

Soil. — Tt  is  generally  conceded  that  strawberries  are 
\most  successfully  raised  on  sandy  (Or  gravelly  loam. 
AVarm,  quick  soil  is  better  than  the  heavy,  rich  soil, 
even  if  the  former  is  lacking  in  vegetable  matter,  for 
this  may  be  easily  supplied,  while  it  might  be  difficult  to 
change  the  character  of  the  latter  soil.  The  plants 
thrive  better  on  a  light  soil,  and  the  fruit  is  of  better 
flavor. 

New  clover  sod  makes  a  desirable  soil  for  straw- 
berries, but  it  is  not  safe  to  use  old  sod  lajnd,  on  ac- 
count of  the  larvae  of  many  injurious  insects  which  are 
likely  to  be  present  in  the  soil  and  feed  upon  the  young 
plants.  To  guard  against  such,  it  is  well  to  have  the 
strawberry  crop  follow  some  cultivated  crop,  as  pota- 
toes, beans  or  corn,  for  the  cultivation  is  quite  likely 
to  kill  the  larvae. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — The  land  should  be  well 
fertilized.  For  four  rows  one  hundred  feet  long,  about 
what  would  supply  the  ordinary  family,  a  load  of  well 
decomposed  stable  manure  is  needed.     It  is  preferable 


294 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


to  plow  this  under  in  the  fall.  The  surface  should  then 
be  pulverized  in  the  spring,  Avhen  it  is  ready  for  the 
plants. 

The  plants. — Strawberries  are  propagated  by  runners. 
The  runners  grow  out  from  the  old  plants,  and  at  the 
joints  take  root  and  form  new  plants.     It  is  these  new 


Fig.  llo. — A  straw uerry  oea  witn  straw  used  for  winter  protection 
raked  between  the  rows,  where  it  holds  moisture  and  checks  the 
growth  of  weeds. 


plants  which  should  be  set  out.  They  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  old  by  their  white  roots.  Old  plants 
have  dark  roots. 

The  plants,  when  taken  up  to  be  transplanted,  should 
be  trimmed  of  dead  leaves  or  of  too  large  a  growth  of 
leaves,  and  of  all  pieces  of  runners.  Many  roots  are 
desirable,  but  as  they  may  maike  planting  difficult  the 
large  roots  are  usually  trimmed. 

If  the  plants  purchased  seem  weak  or  wilted,  or  if 
the  field  at  the  time  is  exceedingly  dry,  they  should  not 


STRAWBERRIES.  295 

be  set  iminediately.  It  is  much  safer  to  shake  them  out 
well  and  put  them  close  together  in  a  row,  where  they 
may  be  easily  protected  from  the  wind  and  kept  well 
watered.  Here  they  will  freshen,  perhaps  start  to  grow, 
and  be  ready  for  the  field  when  conditions  there  are 
more  favorable. 

Setting  of  Plants. — Strawberry  plants  may  be  set  out 
at  any  time,  from  early  spring  until  as  late  as  the  first  of 
June,  providing  the  plants  are  strong  and  the  ground 
moist.  However,  the  earlier  they  are  set  the  better,  as 
they  then  have  a  longer  growing  season  and  the  roots 
seem  to  form  more  abundantly  in  the  cooler  weather 
of  spring.  When  necessary  to  do  so  plants  may  be  set 
out  in  August,  providing  they  are  well  rootedf  and  the 
ground  is  well  supplied  with  moisture.  When  buying 
for  August  plainting,  it  is  safer  to  buy  potted  plants,  even 
though  they  are  more  expensive. 

In  setting  the  plants,  the  roots  should  be  shaken  or 
spread  out  as  naturally  as  possible  and  the  dirt  firmly 
packed  about  them.  Care  must  be  taken  to  set  the 
plants  the  right  depth.  The  terminal  bud  should  not 
be  hidden,  yet  the  upper  portion  of  the  root  should  be 
well  covered.  The  safe  rule  is  to  set  the  plants  as  near- 
ly as  possible  the  depth  they  were  before. 

System  of  Planting. — Strawberries  are  either  set  in 
hills  or  in  matted  rows.  When  set  in  hills,  they  are 
usually  three  by  three  feet  apart,  or  plants  two  feet 
and  rows  four  feet  apart.  When  set  in  matted  rows, 
the  common  practice  is  to  set  out  single  rows  four  feet 
apart,  plants  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  run- 
ners are  then  allowed  to  cover  a  space  of  from  six  to 
nine  inches  on  either  side  of  the  plants,  making  a  matted 
row  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  wide  and  leaving  a 
space  of  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  between  the 
rows  for  cultivation  and  convenience  in  harvesting. 
This  space  may  be  reduced,  and  there  is  one  advantage 
in  the  narroAver  space — i.  e.,  the  runners  may  be  allow- 


296  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

ed  to  occupy  it  and  the  old  row  be  plowed  up.     This 
saves  resetting. 

Cultivation.— Cultivation  should  be  shallow,  yet  deep 
enough  to  destroy  weeds  and  frequent  enough  to  keep 
the  surface  well  pulverized  and  to  maintain  a  surface 
mulch.  Moisture  is  then  more  readily  admitted  and  evap- 
oration is  checked  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  plants  from  getting 
too  thick  in  the  row.  If  too  thick  they  are  less  vigorous 
and  produce  smaller  and  poorer  berries.  When  set  in 
rows,  enough  new  plants  ma]y  be  permitted  to  set  to 
make  a  continuous  row  12  to  18  inches  wide,  with  plants 
not  nearer  together  than  6  inches. 

To  protect  the  plants  from  frequent  freezing  and 
thawing,  a  mulch  is  applied.  The  mulch  is  usually  of 
coarse  material,  as  hay,  com  stailks,  or  straw,  and  is  ap- 
plied late  in  autumn  or  in  the  early  winter.  It  should 
protect  the  plants,  yet  not  smother  them.  Ordinarily  it 
should  be  about  three  inches  thick  and  extend  over  the 
entire  bed.  In  the  spring  most  of  the  mulch  is  taken 
from  over  the  row  and  put  in  the  spaces  between,  where 
it  preserves  moisture  and  keeps  down  weeds.  The  por- 
tion left  on  the  row  aids  in  keeping  the  fruit  off  the 
ground. 

Questions : 

1.  What  is  the  best  soil  for  strawberries? 

2.  How  should  the  soil  be  prepared? 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  plants  to  be  set? 

4.  When  and  how  should  plants  be  set? 

5.  What  care  should  the  strawberry  bed  receive? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  strawberry  plants  are  set  in  rows  4  ft.  apart 
and  plants  2  ft.  apart  in  the  row,  how  long  will  four 
rows  need  to  be  to  accommodate  2O0  plants?  How  much 
space  will  they  occupy? 


RASPBERRIES.  297 

2.  If  strawberries  yield  3,000  quarts  per  acre,  how 
much  is  the  crop  worth  at  10c.  per  quart? 

3.  If  strawberries  yield  3,000  quarts  per  acre,  how 
many  quarts  should  4  rows  100  ft.  long  and  4  ft.  apart 
yield? 

RASPBERRHES. 

Adaptability. — The  raspberry,  like  the  strawberry,  has 
some  species  which  are  adapted  to  almost  every  locality. 
One  type  of  the  red  raspberry  extends  over  a  territory 
from  Arizona  to  Alaska.  There  seems,  however,  to  be 
no  variety  adapted  to  conditions  in  the  western  Dakotas, 
eastern  Montana  and  Wyoming,  or  for  parts  of  California, 
New  Mexico  and  Texas. 

Varieties. — The  name  raspberry,  as  we  use  the  term 
to-day,  embraces  four  species  of  plants,  the  European, 
a  foreign  species,  the  Native  Ked,  the  Black  Cap  and 
the  Purple  Cane,  a  cross  between  Black  Cap  and  Red 
Raspberry.  Each  species  has  many  varieties  of  fruit, 
but  only  two  distinct  types  are  represented,  the  red 
raspberries  and  the  black  raspberries  or  ** black  caps." 

Soil. — In  their  wild  state,  raspberries  are  frequently 
found  growing  upon  rocky  soil,  but  they  thrive  better 
and  yield  more  abundantly  upon  moderately  rich  soil. 
The  varieties  of  red  raspberries  seem  to  require  for  best 
production  a  richer  soil  than  most  of  the  varieties  of 
black  raspberries,  the  former  giving  larger  yields  on 
moist  clay  loam  and  the  latter  on  sandy  loam. 

Preparation  of  Soil.— Preferably  raspberries  should 
follow  a  cultivated  crop.  Beans,  peas,  and  potatoes  are 
good  preparatory  crops.  Light,  poor  soil  will  require  a 
heavy  dressing  of  well  decomposed  barnyard  manure, 
which  should  be  thoroughly  plowed  under. 

Propagation.— The  red  raspberries  are  propagated 
by  root  sprouts.     Young  succulent  plants  may  be  trana- 


298  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

planted  if  a  part  of  the  parent  root  is  taken  with  them, 
but  one  year  old  root  sprouts  are  more  successfully  hand- 
led. The  red  raspberry  is  also  propagated  by  planting 
pieces  of  the  old  root. 

The  black  raspberries  are  propagated  by  stolons  or 
layers.  To  secure  new  plants,  the  branches  are  bent 
over  some  time  during  the  summer  and  their  tips  cov- 
ered lightly  with  earth.     They  then  root  quickly.     These 


Fig.  114. — Uncovering  raspberries  in  the  spring.  They  are  laid  down 
in  the  fall  and  covered  with  earth  to  protect  them  from  thawing 
and  freezing. 

new  plants  are  left  attached  to  the  old  plant  until  the 
following  spring,  when  the  old  stem  or  branch  is  cut 
about  eight  inches  above  the  new  roots.  The  plants 
are  then  ready  for  transplanting. 

Setting  of  Plants. — The  red  raspberries  may  be  set 
out  during  either  spring  or  fall,  fall  setting  perhaps 
being  more  generally  favored,,  as  sprouts  come  out  very 
early  in  the  spring  and  are  very  liable  to  be  broken  off 
if  transplanting  is  attempted  at  this  season. 


RASPBERRIES.  299 

The  black  raspberries,  tip  rooters,  should  be  trans- 
planted in  the  springs,  as  they  are  almost  sure  to  winter 
kill  if  disturbed  in  the  fall. 

Plants  of  either  kind  are  usually  set  two  in  a  hill, 
hills  three  feet  apart  and  rows  seven  feet  apart.  If 
the  rows  extend  north  and  south,  the  fruit  during  ripen- 
ing time  will  be  somewhat  shaded  by  the  new  growth, 
which  is  an  advantage.  The  spacing  may  be  reduced, 
but  wide  spacing  has  some  advantages,  chief  among  which 
is  the  fact  that  it  admits  plenty  of  sunshine  and  makes 
cultivation  possible  even  when  the  branches  are  bearing 
fruit. 

When  the  new  plants  are  set  they  are  cut  off  close 
to  the  ground,  atad  are  not  allowed  to  bear  fruit  the 
first  year. 

The  red  raspberries,  propagated  by  root  sprouts, 
should  be  set  a  little  deeper  than  they  were  originally. 
The  black  raspberries,  propagated  by  stolons  or  layers, 
should  be  set  at  about  their  original  depth. 

Cultivation. — Clean  cultivation  is  especially  necessary 
for  the  red  raspberry,  as  it  spreads  rapidly  if  not  checked, 
soon  exhausting  its  vitality.  Implements  should  be  used 
to  cut  off  the  shoots  or  sprouts  as  they  extend  into  the 
cultivated  spaces.  While  the  plants  are  young  they 
should  be  cultivated  both  ways,  but  as  they  grow  older 
it  is  perhaps  more  profitable  to  let  them  form  a  matted 
row  or  hedge.  The  spaces  between  the  hedges  should 
be  plowed  at  least  once  a  year,  and  perhaps  less  injury  is 
done  to  the  roots  if  spring  plowing  is.  practiced.  The 
subsequent  cultivating  should  loosen  the  soil  only  to  a 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches. 

Pruning. — The  red  raspberries  require  summer  and 
winter  pruning.  The  summer  pruning  consists  in  stop- 
ping the  young  shoots  when  they  are  about  eighteen 
inches  high.  This  tends  to  produce  branches  and  root 
sprouts  and  so  increase  the  wood  growth.     The  winter 


300  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

pruning  consists  in  cutting  out  all  stems  that  have  pro- 
duced fruit,  as  well  as  all  dead  and  diseased  ones. 

The  black  raspberry  also  requires  two  prunings. 
The  spring  pruning  consists  in  removing  the  terminal 
buds  when  the  young  shoots  are  about  eighteen  inches 
high.  They  will  then  form  from  four  to  six  lateral 
branches.  To  successfully  prune,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  go  through  the  patch  several  times,  taking  each  time 
only  the  buds  from  shoots  of  the  right  height.  The  second 
pruning  is  merely  removing  the  old  stalks,  and  may  be 
done  any  time  after  the  fruiting  period.  If  done  the 
following  spring,  then  the  lateral  branches  produced  the 
previous  summer  may  be  shortened  to  about  ten  inches. 

Winter  Protection. — In  some  severe  climates  rasp- 
berries need  winter  protection.  The  roots  are  loosened 
at  one  side  of  each  plant,  and  the  top  is  bent  over  and 
covered  with  earth.  A  layer  of  corn  fodder  or  straw 
may  be  added  later,  if  more  protection  seems  warranted. 
This  covering  should  be  removed  in  the  spring,  and  the 
plants  raised  as  soon  as  danger  of  freezing  and  thawing 
is  past. 

Questions : 

1.  How  general  is  raspberry  culture? 

2.  How  many  types  of  raspberries  are  there  ? 

3.  What  soil  does  each  type  require? 

4.  How  is  each  type  propagated? 

5.  Tell  what  you  can  of  time  and  manner  of  setting 
each  type  ? 

6.  Describe  cultivation  and  pruning  of  each  type. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  one  plants  4  rows  of  raspberries  100  ft.  long, 
with  2  plants  per  hill  2  ft.  apart  in  the  row,  how  many 
plants  are  required? 

2.  If  one  has  four  100  ft.  roAvs  of  raspberries,  rows 
7  ft.  apart,  how  much  space  do  they  occupy? 

3.  If  raspberries  yield  2,500  qts.  per  acre,  how  many 
quarts  should  one  get  from  a  patch  28  ft.  by  100  ft.  ? 


CURRANTS    AND    GOOSEBERRIES. 


301 


CURRANTS    AND    GOOSEBERRIES. 


Varieties. — There  are  three  species  of  currants,  the 
Red  currant,  the  Black  currant  and  t-he  Crandall  cur- 
rant. Only  the  red  currant  has  any  considerable  market 
in  this  country,  and  it  includes  red  fruit  and  white  fruit. 
There  are  not  many  varieties  of  currants  listed,  yet  they 
differ  considerably  in  degree  of  hardiness.  Only  varieties 
known  to  be  hardy  in  the  locality 
should  be  purchased  for  the  main  part 
of  the  crop. 

The  Soil. — Currants  will  produce 
fruit  on  very  poor  land,  but  do  much 
better  on  rich  land.  The  richer  the 
land  the  larger  the  yield,  all  else  being 
equal.  Select  any  well  drained  piece 
of  land,  manure  it  if  it  is  not  already 
rich,  plow  and  harrow  until  a  good 
seed  bed  is  prepared. 

Propagation  and  Setting. — Currants 
are  generally  propagated  either  by  cut- 
tings or  layers.  The  cuttings  are  usu- 
ally made  about  seven  inches  lomg, 
from  the  new  wood,  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  which  is  generally  in 
August.  They  are  then  set  in  rich,  well 
drained  soil,  with  about  one  inch  of 
the  cutting  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  the  earth  well  packed 
about  the  lower  end.  Here  they  will 
take  root,  and  in  about  a  year  be  large  enough  to  trans- 
plant in  the  permanent  field. 

Layers  are  made  by  bending  branches  to  the  ground 
early  in  the  season  and  covering  them  with  earth.  These 
plants  are  separated  from  the  old  plants  after  they 
become  rooted,  and  may  be  transplanted  in  the  fall  or 
the  following  spring. 

Currants  may  be  set  out  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the 
spring.     If  set  in  the  fall  they  will  need  to  be  banked 


Fig.  113.— Currant 
bushes  tied,  to- 
gether to  prevent 
them  from  being- 
broken  down  by 
snow.  From 
Practical  Fruit 
Growing. 


302  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

slightly.     They  should  be   set   so   as   to   admit   of  culti- 
vation both  ways,  five  or  six  feet  being  the  usual  spacing. 

Cultivation. — The  spaxie  between  the  rows  should  be 
plowed  every  spring,  and  then  cultivated  frequently  un- 
til the  bushes  are  fruiting,  when  perhaps  cultivation  will 
have  to  be  suspended.  Cultivation  should  be  resumed 
after  the  fruit  has  been  gathered. 

Often  heavy  mulching  will  serve  quite  as  well  as 
cultivation.  The  mulching  may  consist  of  straw,  saw- 
dust, ashes,  etc.  If  sawdust  or  ashes  are  used,  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  them  from  being  worked  into  the 
soil.  A  combination  of  the  two  systems  also  produces 
good  results,  i.  e.,  to  mulch  about  the  plants  and  cultivate 
in  the  center  of  the  spaces. 

Pruning. — Unlike  raspberries,  the  older  branches  bear 
most  of  the  fruit.  Therefore  the  pruning  should  consist 
in  taking  out  the  oldest,  weakest  and  diseased  stems, 
and  enough  of  the  new  shoots  to  keep  the  hill  from  be- 
coming too  crowded. 

Winter  Protection. — Most  of  the  varieties  are  perfect- 
ly hardy,  but  a  few  of  the  varieties  bearing  large  fruit 
may  need  to  be  bent  and  covered  with  earth.  Bushes 
are  protected  from  too  heavy  a  burden  of  snow  by  being 
securely  tied  in  an  upright  bunch. 

Gooseberry. — The  gooseberry  is  closely  related  to  tlio 
currant.  It  does  well  on  about  the  same  kind  of  soil 
and  requires  about  the  same  care. 

Propagation. — Unlike  the  currant,  the  gooseberry  is 
not  successfully  propagated  by  cuttings.  Layering  is 
the  more  successful  method  of  propagation.  If  the  old 
branches  are  carefully  covered  with  soil  in  the  spring, 
when  the  new  growth  is  a  few  inches  long,  many  new 
plants  will  be  rooted  by  fall. 

Pruning. — Gooseberries  should  receive  the  same  prun- 
ing as  the  currant.  In  addition  they  should  have  the  new 
growth  cut  back  a  little  every  year,  as  this  tends  to 
increase  the  size  of  the  fruit. 


APPLES.  303 

Questions : 

1.  AVhat  kind  of  soil  do  currants  require? 

2.  How  are  currants  propagated? 

3.  What  cultivation  and  pruning  should  currants 
receive  ? 

4.  How  are  gooseberries  propagated? 

5.  What  pruning  should  they  receive? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  currants  are  set  5  ft.  apart  each  way,  how  many 
square  feet  of  land  are  required  for  25  hills?  What  part 
of  an  acre  is  this  ? 

2.  If  one  has  a  row  of  currants  125  ft.  lonff,  and 
to  cultivate  it  thoroughly  he  must  go  the  length  of  the 
row  four  times,  how  far  would  he  travel  in  cultivating 
his  currants  once?  How  long  would  it  take  him  if  his 
team  traveled  at  the  rate  of  2  miles  per  hour? 

3.  If  currants  are  set  five  feet  apart  each  way,  how 
many  hills  can  be  set  in  one  acre  ? 

APPLES. 

Adaptability. — By  selection  and  grafting,  varieties  of 
apples  have  been  obtained  which  are  very  hardy  and 
adapt  themselves  to  wide  ranges  of  territory  and  vast 
differences  in  temperature.  Apple-growing  is  no  longer 
confined  to  the  warmer  portions  of  the  south,  but  is  a 
possibility  in  the  colder  sections  of  the  north.  In  fact 
some  very  choice  apples  are  raised  in  districts  of  short 
summers  and  cold  winters. 

Varieties. — Varieties  differ  greatly  in  degree  of  hardi- 
ness. Some  varieties  are  local,  while  others  are  more 
general.  Patten's  Greening,  an  apple  originated  in  Iowa, 
and  the  Okabena,  originated  in  Minnesota,  are  among 
the  hardy  American  varieties. 

Soil. — The  chief  requirement  of  soil  for  apple  pro- 
duction seems  to  be  that  it  contains  an  abundance  of 
plant  food.  The  poorer  the  soil,  the  more  careful  man- 
agement   becomes    necessary.     The    best    condition    for 


304 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


apples  seems  to  be  a  rich,  well-drained  soil  that  will  re- 
tain moisture. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil.— Some  prefer  to  raise  apples 
in  a  sodded  tract.  Where  such  is  the  case,  good  clover 
or  prairie  sod  need  not  be  broken  up.  Holes  should  be 
dug  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  tree  without 
crowding  its  roots.  Where  cultivation  of  the  orchard  is 
planned,  the  soil  should  be  brought  into  a  tillable  con- 
dition before  trees  are  set.  The  latter  is  undoubtedly  the 
more  successful  method. 

The  Trees.~ln  se- 
lecting trees  to  set, 
perhaps  more  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to 
the  roots  than  to  the 
shape  of  the  top.  The 
essentials  are  a  good^ 
root  system  and  a' 
thrifty  top. 

Apple  trees  do 
not  come  true  from 
seed.  That  is,  seed 
from  Ben  Davis  ap- 
ples will  not  produce 
Ben  Davis  Apple 
trees.  Trees  true  to 
variety  are  secured 
by  grafting  branches 
of  trees  of  desired 
varieties  on  roots  se- 
cured by  planting 
apple  seeds.  In  se- 
vere climates  it  is 
very  essential  that 
these  roots  be  hardy. 
To  be  sure  of  getting  suitable  stock,  it  is  wise  to  order 
trees  for  planting  only  from  dealers  in  whom  you  have 
confidence.  Trees  should  not  be  more  than  four  or  less 
than  one  year  old. 


Fig.  116. — Picking  apples.  Note  care 
taken  to  prevent  bruising  as  bruis- 
ed apples  do  not  keep  well. 


APPLES.  305 

Trees  for  northern  growers  should  be  taken  from  the 
nursery  in  the  fall,  and  kept  through  the  winter  in  a 
cool  cellar,  or  be  buried  in  trenches  in  the  field. 

Setting  the  Trees. — In  sections  of  severe  winters, 
apple  trees  should  be  set  in  the  spring  as  they  are 
almost  sure  to  winter-kill  if  set  in  the  fall.  In  sections 
particularly  adapted  to  apple  culture,  the  trees  may  be 
taken  from  the  nursery  in  the  spring  and  set  out.  They 
may  also  be  set  in  the  fall.  However,  the  spring  plant- 
ing is  likely  to  be  more  successful  than  the  fall  planting. 

The  depth  to  set  apple  trees  will  vary  according  to 
the  slope  of  the  land  and  the  quality  of  the  soil.  On 
steep  hillsides  they  must  be  set  deeply  enough  to  pre- 
vent the  roots  from  coming  to  the  surface.  In  rich  soil, 
four  or  five  inches  deeper  than  they  were  originally  is 
adequate.     Sandy  light  soil  will  require  deeper  setting. 

In  sections  where  apple  trees  grow  large,  they  should 
be  siet  from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet  apart.  In  sections 
where  trees  do  not  attain  so  large  a  size,  they  may  be 
set  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  apairt,  and  trees  in 
one  row  alternate  with  those  in  the  next.  As  a  protec- 
tion against  sun  scald^  trees  should  be  set  to  lean  a  little 
to  the  southwest. 

Cultivation. — If  cultivation  of  the  orchard  is  practic- 
ed, some  crop  which  requires  cultivation  in  early  sum- 
mer but  none  in  the  fall,  may  be  grown.  Com  and  early 
potatoes  are  often  planted;  and  in  some  eastern  states, 
where  there  is  a  great  demand  for  tomatoes  for  the  can- 
neries, this  crop  is  found  profitable,  and  the  cultivation 
beneficial  to  the  orchard. 

Mulching. — There  are  arguments  for  and  against 
mulching.  Where  cultivation  is  impossible,  a  mulch  of 
straw,  hay  or  any  coarse  material,  should  be  maintained. 
A  mulch  of  stable  manure  is  beneficial  to  young  trees, 
but  should  not  touch  them. 

Where  mulching  is  practiced,  it  should  be  renewed 
when  grass  begins  to  grow  up  through  it,  and  should 
cover  as  large  or  a  larger  space  than  the  roots  arc  liable 
to  permeate. 


306  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Each  spring  the  mulching  should  be  removed,  the 
ground  around  the  tree  well  spaded,  and  a  mulch  re- 
placed. 

The  chief  objections  to  mulching  are  that  it  tends  to 
encourage  groAvth  of  roots  towards  the  surface,  and  fur- 
nishes a  home  for  injurious  insects.  These  objections 
may  be  overcome  by  removing  the  mulch  in  the  spring 
and  replacing  it  in  the  fall. 

Pruning. — The  objects  in  pruning  are  to  admit  sun- 
light,, which  is  necessary  to  ripen  the  fruit,  and  to  main- 
tain the  vigor  and  vitality  of  the  tree.  Trees  well  ex- 
posed to  sun  and  wind  will  need  less  pruning  or  thin- 
ning of  branches  than  trees  in  more  sheltered  places. 
Old,  neglected  trees  may  be  benefitted  by  pruning,  as 
the  remaining  branches  will  receive  more  of  the  sap 
gathered  by  the  roots  as  the  foliage  area  is  reduced. 
If  the  trees  are  badly  in  need  of  pruning,  it  is  well  to 
remove  only  a  portion  of  the  surplus  branches  the  first 
yeair,  and  continue  the  pruning  the  following  years. 

A  limb  that  crosses  another,  or  is  too  near  another, 
should  be  removed  as  well  as  all  diseased  portions. 

Pruning  may  be  done  on  warm  days  in  early  spring. 
It  is  safer  not  to  prune  when  the  twigs  are  frozen,  yet 
the  pruning  should  be  done  before  the  sprouts  start.  A 
branch  or  twig  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  trunk  or 
the  branch,  as  such  cuts  heal  more  quickly  than  if  a 
stub  is  left.  The  scars  made  should  be  covered  with 
grafting  wax  or  some  similar  substance.  Pure  linseed 
oil  and  white  lead  are  successfully  used. 

Questions: 

1.  How  has  apple-growing  been  made  possible  in 
districts  not  originally  adapted  to  it? 

2.  What  kind  of  soil  do  apple  trees  require? 

3.  How  are  different  soils  or  sods  prepared  for  ap- 
ple trees? 

4.  Tell  what  you  can  of  trees  suitable  for  setting. 

5.  How  and  when  should  trees  be  set? 


PRESERVING   FRUIT.  307 

6.  What  cultivation  is  necessary? 

7.  What  mulching  and  pruning  are  necessary? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  trees  are  set  25  ft.  apart  each  way,  how  much 
space  does  each  tree  occupy?  How  many  trees  can  be 
set  on  an  acre? 

2.  If  trees  are  set  25  ft.  apart  each  way  and  each 
tree  produces  4  bu.  of  apples,  how  many  bushels  will 
be  produced  per  acre?  How  much  are  they  worth  at 
$1.00  per  bu.  ? 

3.  If  one  has  10  apple  trees,  each  producing  four 
bushels  of  apples,  how  much  will  the  apples  be  worth 
at  90c.  per  bu.? 

PRESERVING    FRUIT. 

Fruit  for  Winter. — In  sections  where  berries  are  not 
grown  the  year  around,  the  only  way  of  having  them, 
and  many  of  the  larger  fruits,  during  winter  is  by  sum- 
mer canning  or  preserving.  Perhaps  no  work  the  house- 
keeper does  is  more  interesting  and  profitable  than  fill- 
ing fruit  jars  and  jelly  glasses.  To  can  successfully 
is  not  difficult  if  the  essentials  are  understood. 

What  Causes  Loss. — There  are  three  living  organ- 
isms, the  presence  of  any  one  of  which  will  cause  de- 
composition of  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  These  or- 
ganisms are  too  minute  to  be  detected  by  the  naked 
eye,  but  their  efi'ects  upon  food  are  familiar  to  every 
housewife.  The  three  organisms  are  yeasts,  molds  and 
bacteria,  and  they  are  found  in  air,  water,  soil,  and  on 
animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

Yeasts. — When  yeast  plants  are  present,  they  will 
begin  to  grow  if  conditions  are  favorable  to  their  de- 
velopment. Conditions  necessary  seem  to  be  presence 
of  warmth,  air,  moisture  and  sugar.  The  plant  grows 
by  budding,  i.  e.,  a  little  plant  starts  out  from  the  parent 
plant  and  is  soon  as  large  as  the  parent  plant.  It  sepa- 
rates from  the  parent,  and  this  process  continues  as  long 


308  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOURS. 

as  conditions  remain  favorable.  They  will  grow  in  fruit 
juice  and  fruit  slightly  sweetened,  but  not  in  thick  sirups 
or  preserves.  They  are  easily  killed  by  exposure  to  high 
or  low  temperatures. 

Molds. — Every  house  wife  is  familiar  with  mold  as 
it  occurs  on  bread,  cake,  etc.  The  spores  (seed)  of  molds 
are  very  light  and  may  be  floating  in  the  air.  When  a 
spore  lodges  on  a  warm,  moist  surface,  it  will  soon  ger- 
minate. It  grows  by  sending  slender  fibers  into  the  food 
upon  which  it  is  lodged.  Soon  the  surface  is  covered. 
It  is  killed  by  exposure  to  high  temperature  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes. 

Bacteria. — These  organisms  multiply  most  rapidly  in 
meat,  milk  and  the  legumes.  They  do  not  grow  in  acids 
or  thick  sirups.  Therefore  pickles  and  cammed  and  pre- 
served fruits  are  more  liable  to  be  injured  by  yeasts  and 
molds  than  by  bacteria.  The  bacteria  themselves  are 
easily  destroyed  by  heat,  but  to  destroy  their  spores  high 
temperature  must  be  maintained  for  several  hours ;  which 
is  the  reason  for  the  long  cooking  of  peas,  beans,  and 
corn. 

Conditions  of  Fruit.^^Only  the  very  best  fruit  should 
be  selected  for  canning.  All  fruit,  except  the  goose- 
berry, should  be  canned  when  ripe  but  not  over-ripe. 
The  gooseberry  is  often  canned  or  preserved  when  green. 

Pectin,  a  carbohydrate  resembling  starch,  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  juice  of  ripe  or  nearly  ripe  fruit. 
When  equal  amounts  of  sugar  and  fruit  juice  are  com- 
bined and  heat  is  applied,  the  pectin  causes  the  mixture 
to  gelatinize,  thus  forming  jelly.  This  power  to  gel- 
atinize is  strongest  in  juice  of  fruits  that  are  just  ripe 
or  a  little  under-ripe.  For  this  reason,  fruit  intended 
for  jelly  must  not  be  over-ripe. 

Preparation. — The  great  essentials  for  successful 
canning  and  preserving  are  cleanliness  and  sterilization. 
To  lessen  the  amount  of  germ-laden  dust  in  the  air,  the 
kitchen  should  be  swept  and  dusted  before  the  fruit  is 
taken  into  it.     Kettles,  jars,  strainers,  covers,  rubbers, 


PRESERVING   FRUIT.  309 

and  all  utensils  to  be  used  should  be  scalded  or  other- 
wise sterilized.  Careful  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  fruit  itself.  Soft  fruits,  as  raspberries  aaid  straw- 
berries, when  washing  is  necessary,  should  be  put  in  a 
colander  and  cold  water  poured  over  them. 

Methods  of  Canning. — For  canning,  fruit  may  be 
cooked  in  hot  water,  in  the  oven,  or  may  be  stewed. 
Small  fruits,  as  berries,  retain  their  shape  better  when 
cooked  either  in  water  or  in  the  oven. 

When  the  hot  water  method  is  practiced,  the  fruit- 
filled  jars,  with  their  covers  lightly  placed,  are  stood  in 
wajrm  water,  which  is  then  slowly  brought  to  boil.  The 
chief  objection  to  this  method  is  that  any  gases  formed 
do  not  pass  off,  because  of  the  covers,  but  are  reabsorbed 
by  the  fruit.  For  this  reason  the  oven  canning  is  more 
satisfactory. 

Sirups  for  Canning. — The  amount  of  natural  sugar 
in  fruit  varies  from  season  to  season.  The  warmer  and 
more  favorable  the  season,  the  sweeter  will  the  fruit  be, 
and  it  will  require  less  additional  sugar.  Tastes  also 
differ;  so  it  is  impossible  to  give  proportions  for  sirups 
that  will  fit  all  conditions  and  suit  all  tastes.  Equal 
parts  of  water  and  sugar  is  a  general  rule.  Put  the  su- 
gar and  water  together  and  stir  until  the  sugar  is  dis- 
solved. Heat  slowly,  then  boil  for  fifteen  minutes  with- 
out stirring. 

To  Can  Raspberries  and  Strawberries. — First  place 
in  the  bottom  of  the  oven  something  to  lessen  the  dan- 
ger of  jars  breaking.  A  shallow  pan  of  hot  water  or 
an  asbestos  mat  may  be  used.  Make  the  sirup,  sterilize 
the  jars,  heat  them  and  fill  them  with  the  prepared  fruit. 
Pour  into  each  jar  as  much  of  the  hot  sirup  as  it  will 
hold.  Put  the  jars  in  the  oven  and  leave  until  the  sirup 
boils.    Remove  and  put  on  sterilized  rubbers  and  covers. 

To  Can  Currants. — Currants  require  about  one  third 
as  much  sugar  as  amount  of  berries  to  be  canned.  Mash, 
heat  and  strain  out  the  juice  from  a  small  portion,  (about 
one  sixth)  of  the  currants.     Add  the  sugar  to  this  juice 


310  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS.. 

and  put  on  the  stove,  and  stir  until  the  sugar  is  dis- 
solved. When  this  juice  boils,  put  the  remaining  cur- 
rants in  it  and  boil  about  ten  minutes,  counting  the  time 
they  actually  boil.  Skim  well  while  boiling.  Put  into 
sterilized  cans  and  seal. 

Raspberries  are  very  palatable  canned  in  sirup  made 
of  currant  juice  as  given  above. 

To  Make  Grape  Juice. — Crush  the  cleaned  and  stem- 
med fruit  in  a  kettle.  Boil  about  thirty  minutes.  Cruijh 
the  fruit  with  a  wooden  spoon  and  strain  off  the  juice. 
Boil  and  skim  the  juice.  Add  the  sugar  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  part  sugar  to  six  or  eight  parts  juice.  Boil 
about  five  minutes,  skimming  meanwhile.  Put  into  l)ot- 
tles  or  jars  and  seal. 

Other  fruit  juices  are  made  the  same  way.  Currants, 
however,  require  about  one  part  sugar  to  two  parts 
juice. 

Questiqns : 

1.  Name  and  describe  the  organisms  which  cause 
decay  and  fermentation. 

2.  "What  should  be  the  condition  of  fruit  for  can- 
ning?   For  jelly,  and  why? 

3.  What  are  the  essentials  of  successful  canning? 

4.  Describe  the  hot  water  method  of  canning.  The 
oven  method. 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  24  quarts  of  fresh  strawberries  worth  10c.  per 
quart  are  required  to  make  12  quarts  of  canned  berries, 
how  much  do  the  berries  cost  for  one  quart  of  canned 
berries? 

2.  If  2  hours  time  is  required  to  can  12  quarts  of 
berries,  what  is  the  cost  of  the  labor  per  quart  if  time  is 
worth  12c.  per  hour? 

3.  If  18  lbs.  of  sugar  costs  $1.00  and  1  lb.  of  sugar 
is  required  for  1  quart  of  canned  strawberries,  how  much 
does  the  sugar  cost  per  qt.  of  berries? 

4.  What  is  the  total  cost  of  one  quart  of  canned 
strawberries?     (See  three  examples  above). 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
COUNTRY  ROADS. 

THE    ROAD    PROBLEM. 

Importance. — Few  boys  and  girls  realize  the  great 
importance  of  roads.  As  one  walks  over  them  to  school 
day  after  day  he  is  liable  to  think  how  bad  or  how  long 
they  are,  rather  than  to  think  what  they  are  for,  how 
they  are  made  and  how  maintained. 


Fig.  117. — A  well-kept  highway  at  Northfleld,  Minnesota.  Trees 
are  beautiful,  and  often  a  comfort  to  man  and  beasts.  On  heavy 
soil,  too  many  trees  shut  out  sun  and  wind  and  keep  the  road 
soft  and  muddy. 


There  are  from  twenty  thousand  to  eighty  thousand 
miles  of  roads  in  each  st^lte,  and  there  are  many  millions 
of  tons  of  farm  products  hauled  over  them  each  year. 
AVhether  these  roads  are  good  or  bad  makes  a  great 
deal  of  difference  in  the  amount  of  labor  required  to 
market  these  products,  and  consequently  in  the  prices 
that  must  be  charged  for  them. 


312 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


Uses  of  roads. — Roads  are  used  as  a  means  of  com- 
munication also,  and  as  roads  become  better  it  is  easier 
for  people  to  travel  about.  Therefore,  where  roads  are 
good,  people  can  with  less  effort  and  much  greater  com- 
fort go  to  school,  to  church, \to  town  and  to  their  neigh- 
bors. Such  conditions  make  life  pleasanter  in  the  coun- 
try and  have  a  very  strong  tendency  to  make  property 
more  valuable.  Good  roads  have  an  educational  and 
social  influence  of  quite  as  much  importance  as  their 
economic  value. 


Fig.   118.- 


-Showing  a  well-kept  and  a  poorly-kept   roadside,   indi- 
cating a  careful  and  a  careless  farmer. 


Really  good  roads  are  seldom  seen  in  the  Northwest 
except  during  the  time  when  weather  conditions  are 
favorable.  A  good  road  is  one  that  is  good  at  all  times, 
not  merely  when  all  conditions  are  favorable. 

Cost  of  roads. — We  often  hear  the  remark  that  roads 
are  poor  because  it  costs  too  much  to  build  good  ones. 
But  did  it  ever  occur  to  you  that  bad  roads  may  cost 
more  than  good  ones?     All  products  of  the  farm  must 


THE    ROAD    PROBLEM.  313 

be  transported  over  roads,  and  it  may  cost  more  to  haul 
these  products  to  market  for  several  years,  over  poor 
roads,  than  to  both  build  good  roads  and  haul  the  prod- 
ucts over  them. 

Points  to  consider. — Are  the  roads  good  between  your 
home  and  the  school  house?  Between  your  home  and 
town?  Are  there  steep  hills,  pr  places  where  the  road 
is  rough,  or  muddy,  or  sandy?  Have  you  thought  that 
the  size  of  the  load  that  can  be  hauled  to  town  is  de- 
termined by  the  size  of  the  load  that  can  be  hauled 
over  the  worst  place  or  places?  This  is  true;  and  many 
times  one  has  to  go  to  town  with  only  half  a  load,  be- 
cause of  some  bad  place  in  the  road.  This  increases 
the  cost  of  marketing  farm  products,  consequently  it  has 
a  tendency  to  increase  the  price  of  things  sold  from 
the  farm,  because  if  the  roads  are  bad  fewer  products 
can  be  brought  to  town  and  fewer  farmers  will  try  to 
get  products  to  market.  People  who  live  in  town  and 
have  to  buy  the  farm  products  are  interested  in  good 
roads,  because  they  want  to  get  their  vegetables,  flour, 
etc.,  as  cheap  as  possible.  For  this  reason  it  is  right 
to  tax  all  the  people  in  the  county,  state  or  in  the  United 
States,  for  the  purpose  of  building  good  roads,  because 
all  of  the  people  are  benefited  by  them 

Roads  in  the  Northwest  are  nearly  always  four  rods 
wide.  This  takes  a  great  deal  of  land.  A  strip  two 
rods  wide  is  taken  off  all  land  adjoining  a  highway. 
They  are  made  this  width  to  give  ample  room  for  turn- 
ing and  to  allow  space  for  ditches,  cuts  and  fills. 

Appearance  of  Road. — Some  farmers  take  pride  in 
keeping  the  side  of  the  road  adjoining  their  farm  clean 
of  weeds  and  neat  in  appearance.  One  of  the  ways  by 
which  people,  passing,  judge  a  farmer  is  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  roadside  along  his  farm. 
Questions : 

1.  In  what  w^ay  do  poor  roads  affect  the  price  of 
farm  products? 

2.  Why  is  it  right  for  people  living  in  town  to  pay 
part  of  the  expense  of  building  good  roads? 


314  AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 

3,  Explain  how  poor  roads  may  be  more  expensive 
than  good  ones. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  good  roads 
besides  making  it  easier  to  market  farm  products? 
Arithmetic : 

1.  If  ten  teams  pass  over  a  road  each  day,  hov^^ 
many  trips  will  be  majde  over  the  road  in  a  year  ? 

2.  If  3650  trips  are  made  over  a  road  each  year,  and 
there  would  be  a  saving  of  2  cts  per  mile  each  trip  if 
the  roads  were  good,  how  much  would  be  saved  per 
miie  per  year? 

3.  If  $1,000  per  mile  were  invested  in  good  roads, 
and  $73.00  were  saved  annually  thereby,  how  long  would, 
it  take  to  pay  the  $1,000,  drawing  4  per  cent,  interest 
by  applying  the  $73.00  saved  annually? 

SYSTEM    OF    DOING    ROAD    WORK. 

Poll  Tax. — You  have  doubtless  heard  your  father 
speak  of  working  out  his  poll  tax.  This  is  a  tax  that 
every  man  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  fifty 
(old  soldiers  excepted)  must  pay  or  work  out  to  keep 
the  roads  in  repair.  The  tax  consists  of  not  less  than 
one  or  more  than  four  day's  work.  It  is  left  to  the 
voters  in  each  township  to  decide  the  number  of  days 
of  labor  each  iniin  shall  be  taxed,  and  whether  this  tax 
is  to  be  paid  in  labor  or  its  equivalent  in  cash.  In  many 
of  the  townships  this  tax  is  still  paid  in  labor.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  poll  tax,  each  real  estate  owner  is  required 
to  pay  a  small  tax  in  cash  or  in  labor,  to  be  expended 
on  the  roads.    This  is  known  as  the  land  road  tax. 

Cash  Tax  System.— During  the  last  few  years  a  great 
many  townships  have  voted  to  pay  all  road  taxes  in 
cash  and  to  hire  men  to  make  and  repair  roads.  This  is 
a  very  much  better  way  than  for  each  farmer  to  go 
out  on  the  road  for  a  few  days  each  year,  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons:  First,  competent  men  can  be  hired  to 
look  after  the  road  work — men  who  have  had  experience 
and  who  do  enous^h  such  work  efi]ch  year,  so  they  can 
afford  to  study  and  know  the  best  ways  of  doing  road 


SYSTEM  OF  DOING   ROAD  WORK. 


315 


work.  Second,  road  work  can  then  be  done  when  it  is 
most  needed.  When  each  farmer  works  out  his  poll  tax, 
all  road  work  is  usually  done  in  the  early  summer,  be- 
tween haying  and  seeding  time,  and  the  roads  are  then 
left  to  take  care  of  themselves  the  rest  of  the  year.  The 
old  saying,  "A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine,"  certainly  ap- 
plies to  road  work. 

When  a  small  rut  is 
formed  in  a  road,  a 
shovelful  or  so  of  mate- 
rial will  fill  it,  but  if  it 
is  left,  water  will  settle 
into  it  and  soften  the 
road  bed.  Then  every 
time  a  wheel  passes 
though  the  rut  it  lifts 
some  mud  out  with  it 
and  makes  the  rut  deep- 
(^r,  until  finally  several 
loads  of  dirt  are  requir- 
ed to  fix  the  place.  A 
shovel  of  material  at  the 
proper  time  would  have 
fixed  the  place  and  have 
kept  the  road  good  all 
of  the  time.  Thus  an 
experienced  road  over- 
seer, who  can  look  after 
the  roads  at  all  times 
lig.  119.— A  Badly  Drifted  Road,  and  has  the  cash  with 
vvith    continuous    supervision    of   which  to  hire  men  and 

highways    such     roads     would     be     .  •      -         i  ,i 

promptly   and   properly  opened.  teams    JUSt    when    they 

are  needed,  can  give 
much  better  results  in  road  work  than  can  be  given  under 
the  poll  tax  system.  Third,  men  and  teams  can  be  hired  to 
do  the  road  work  who  are  familiar  with  that  kind  of 
work.  When  several  farm  teams  are  put  together  to 
work  in  the  road,  the  horses  are  not  used  to  the  work 
or   to   working  together,   consequently    they    cannot   do 


316  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

SO  much  or  do  it  so  Avell  as  can  teams  that  are  doing 
that  kind  of  work  most  of  the  time.  Fourth,  under 
the  poll  tax  system  men  are  obliged  to  leave  their  work 
on  the  farm  and  work  on  the  road.  Under  the  cash 
tax  system  they  can  pay  their  tax  and  stay  at  home 
to  attend  to  their  crops.  This  is  much  more  important 
now,  when  farmers  are  practicing  diversified  farming, 
than  when  they  were  raising  only  grain. 

Other  Money  For  Roads. — Any  township  may  appro- 
priate money  for  road  work  to  the  extent  of  a  certain  per 
cent  of  the  assessed  valuation  of  property  in  the  township. 
Counties  may  also  appropriate  money  for  roads,  and  the 
states  are  at  each  session  of  the  legislature  appropriating 
money  to  improve  highways.  There  is  also  in  many  of  the 
states  a  permanent  road  fund  accruing  from  the  sale  of 
land. 

The  total  amount  of  money  expended  on  roads  is 
many  millions  of  dollars  annually,  and  whether  or  not 
this  money  is  wisely  expended  means  a  great  gain  or 
loss  to  all  the  people.  It  is  hoped  that  some  of  the 
young  people  who  read  this  chapter  will  become  interest- 
ed in  the  subject  of  good  roads,  and  be  constantly  look- 
ing for  better  ways  of  doing  road  work. 

It  would  seem  that  the  important  thing  in  road  work 
at  present  is  to  adopt  a  system  that  will  make  it  possible 
to  hire  competent  men  to  look  after  the  roads  constantly. 
Questions : 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  poll  tax? 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  cash  tax 
system  ? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  having  the 
road  taxes  paid  in  cash? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  It  costs  a  farmer  about  17  cents  per  ton  to  haul 
farm  products  one  mile  on  dirt  roads  as  they  now  exist 
in  Minnesota.  What  does  it  cost  him  per  ton  to  market 
his  products  on  such  a  road,  at  an  average  distance  of 
five  miles?  What  is  the  total  cost  per  year,  if  he  markets 
50  tons  of  produce  ? 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION.  317 

2.  It  costs  about  13  cents  per  ton  to  haul  farm 
products  one  mile  on  graveled  or  on  well  built  and  well 
kept  dirt  roads.  What  will  it  cost  per  ton  for  a  dis- 
tance of  5  miles?  What  will  be  the  total  cost  per  year 
if  50  tons  of  produce  are  hauled  to  market? 

3.  There  are  about  3  farmers  to  every  mile  of  road. 
If  each  farmer  is  saved  $10  per  year  by  being  able  to 
market  his  products  easier,  how  much  are  the  three 
saved? 

4.  If  the  three  farmers  borrow  $500  at  4  per  cent 
interest  and  spend  it  to  improve  the  mile  of  road,  how 
long  would  it  take  them  to  pay  the  $500  and  interest 
if  they  paid  on  it  the  $30.00  saved  each  year  by  hav- 
ing good  roads? 

ROAD    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  object  in  view  in  road  building  is  to  make  the 
road  bed  as  near  level  as  possible,  that  is,  to  avoid  hills; 
also  to  make  and  keep  it  as  firm  and  unyielding  as 
possible  with  the  material  and  labor  at  hand.  It  is 
sometimes  no  farther  around  ai  hill  than  over  it,  and  in 
such  cases  it  is  much  more  practical  to  go  around.  A 
pail  bail  is  often  used  to  illustrate  this  point.  When 
standing  erect  the  bail  is  the  same  length  as  when  lying 
down,  but  a  road,  as  represented  by  the  erect  bail,  would 
be  much  harder  to  travel  than  a  road  represented  by 
the  bail  lying  flat. 

Stone  Roads. — In  the  older  countries,  and  in  the  older 
and  more  thickly  populated  portions  of  this  country,  a 
large  portion  of  the  roads  are  built  of  some  hard  ma- 
terial, as  stone.  A  very  common  form  of  stone  road 
is  called  macadam  road.  It  is  named  after  the  man  who 
invented  this  process  of  road  building.  To  build  a  ma- 
cadam road,  the  road  bed  is  first  given  the  slope  desired, 
then  covered  with  a  layer  of  coarse,  crushed  rock,  which 
is  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller.  Then  another  layer  of 
finer  crushed  rock  is  placed  on  top,  and  rolled  until  it 
works  in  between  the  particles  of  the  coarser  material. 
More,   but   still   finer,    crushed   rock   or   sand   is   added, 


31! 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 


sprinkled  with  water  and  rolled  until  a  smooth,  hard 
surface  is  formed.  A  stone  road  made  as  above  de- 
scribed, and  from  6  inches  to  12  inches  thick,  makes  an 
excellent,  hard,  permanent  road.  Such  roads  cost  so 
much  ($3,000  to  $6,000  per  mile)  that  they  can  be  built 
only  where  the  population  is  dense  and  where  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  travel  over  them. 

Dirt  Roads. — In  most  farming  districts,  for  many 
years  to  come,  roads  must  be  made  of  the  material  at 
hand;  which  means,  in  most  cases,  common  dirt  roads. 
Such  roads,  if  properly  made  and  maintained,  are  very 

serviceable  and  may  be 
much  better  than  coun- 
try roads  generally  are. 
Drainage. — Since  the 
object  in  view  in  mak- 
ing roads  is  to  keep 
them  hard,  it  is  plain 
that  to  do  this  water 
must  be  kept  from 
standing  at  or  near  the 
surface.  Drainage,  then, 
is  the  first  problem  in 
building  roads  (except 
sandy  roads)  and  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  if  all  roads  were  properly  drained  the 
greatest  problem  in  road  building  would  be  solved. 

The  Turnpike. — The  most  common  form  of  road  is  a 
turnpike,  made  by  taking  dirt  from  either  side  of  the 
road  and  putting  it  in  the  middle.  This  makes  a  very 
good  form  of  road,  as  the  center  of  the  road  is  high,  so 
the  water  runs  off  to  either  side  into  the  ditches  form- 
ed. Often  water  remains  in  these  ditches  because  no 
outlet  is  provided  by  which  it  can  escape  into  the  nat- 
ural waterways.  Waiter  standing  beside  a  road,  and 
within  two  to  four  feet  of  the  surface,  is  very  often 
detrimental  to  the  roadbed,  as  it  soaks  up  through  the 
dirt   and  keeps   it  soft.     It  is  sometimes  necessary  to 


Fig.  120.— A  Split-log  Drag  faced 
with  steel.  (See  description  and 
cost    page    320.) 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION.  319 

ditch  across  some  farmer's  land  to  get  the  water  out 
of  these  roadside  ditcheai.  Farmers  should  willingly 
co-operate  with  the  town  board  to  do  such  work.  In- 
stead, they  sometimes  object.  But  in  most  states  the 
town  board  is  authorized  by  law  to  construct  such  ditch- 
es as  are  necessary  across  any  property.  They,  of  course, 
must  pay  damages  if  such  ditch  does  damage  to  the 
property;  but  if  it  proves  a  benefit,  then  the  owner  of 
the  property  must  help  pay  the  cost  of  constructing  the 
ditch. 

Where  the  road  is  made  mostly  of  clay  it  is  great- 
ly benefited  by  the  addition  of  sand,  as  the  mixture  is 
less  sticky,  sheds  water  better  and  dries  out  more  quick- 
ly. Likewise  sandy  roads  are  benefited  by  covering  them 
with  clay,  as  the  clay  helps  to  bind  the  sand  together 
and  keep  the  road  hard. 

If  good  gravel  is  at  hand,  thait  is  sharp  and  will  pack 
together,  almost  any  of  the  common  dirt  roads  will  be 
benefited  by  a  coating  of  it. 

Good  gravel  roads  are  better  than  dirt  roads,  but 
not  so  good  as  stone  roads.  They  are  much  cheaper  than 
stone  roads ;  and  many  communities  are  graveling  a  few 
miles  of  road  each  year,  thereby  gradually  getting  a 
very  serviceable  system  of  roads. 

Questions : 

1.  AVhat  is  the  chief  object  in  view  in  road  building? 

2.  Tell  how  a  macadam  road  is  built. 

3.  What  is  the  first  problem  to  consider  in  con- 
structing dirt  roads? 

4.  Why  is  a  turnpike  a  good  form  of  road? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  road  is  four  rods  wide,  how  many  sq.  ft.  of 
surface  are  there  on  a  mile  of  road? 

2.  If  there  are  30  inches  of  rainfall  in  a  year,  how 
many  tons  of  water  fall  on  a  mile  of  road  in  a  year? 

(A  cu.  ft.  of  water  weighs  62.42  lbs.) 

3.  How  many  cu.  yds  of  gravel  are  required  to  cover 
a  mile  of  road  12  ft.  wide  and  6  in.  deep? 


820 


AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


MAINTENANCE   OF    ROADS. 

Road  Repairing. — In  well  settled  communities  the 
main  part  of  road  work  is  to  keep  roads  in  repair.  Ke- 
pair  consists  of  fixing  bridges  and  culverts,  filling  in 
ruts  and  mud  holes,  opening  up  old  and  making  new 
side  ditches,  and  smoothing  off  and  rounding  up  the 
road  bed  so  it  will  readily  shed  water.  After  a  dirt 
road  is  well  ma^de — that  is,  made  as  level  as  practicable 
under  the  circumstances  and  built  into  a  turnpike  with 
ditches  on  either  side — there  is  nothing  so  cheap  and 
effective  for  keeping  such  a  road  in  repair  as  the  split 
log  drag. 


Fig.  121. — The  split-log  drag  in  use.  Notice  ruts  made  by  wagon 
wheels.  A  road  should  be  dragged,  if  possible,  before  it  gets 
in  such  bad  shape. 


King's  Split-log  Drag. — Every  one  interested  in 
good  roads  should  know  of  the  King  split  log  drag. 
It  is  named  after  Mr.  D.  Ward  King,  of  Maitland,  Mis- 
souri, who  first  made  known  to  the  public  the  value 
of  this  excellent  little  implement.  It  is  made  of  a  log  10 
inches  or  12  inches  through  and  about  eight  feet  long, 
split  in  halves.     The  halves   are   fastened  together   by 


MAINTENANCE   OF   ROADS.  321 

boring  2-inch  holes  through  them  and  driving  in  strong 
stakes  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  long,  just  as  a 
wood-rack  bed  is  made,  with  both  split  surfaces  of  the 
log  facing  the  same  way.  If  a  log  is  not  at  hand,  a 
timber  about  3  inches  by  8  inches  may  be  used  instead. 
The  efficiency  of  the  drag  is  increased  by  putting  a  strip 
of  steel  on  each  cutting  edge  as  shown  in  Fig  106.  The 
drag  then  cuts  better  and  wears  much  longer.  The  drag 
is  drawn  by  a  chain  in  the  direction  of  its  faces,  and  at 
an  angle,  so  that  it  pushes  dirt  toward  the  center  oi  the 
road  just  as  a  reversible  road  grader  does. 

Why  Dirt  Roads  Need  Dragging. — When  a  road  is 
first  made  it  has  a  gradual  and  continuous  slope  from 
the  center  towards  the  sides.  This  leaves  no  place  for 
water  to  stand  on  the  road,  and  it  soon  dries  off  after  a 
rain.  As  heavy  loads  are  drawn  over  dirt  roads,  the 
wagon  wheels  cut  into  the  surface  and  throw  up  a  ridge 
of  dirt  just  outside  of  where  the  wheels  run.  You  can 
see  this  on  almost  any  road,  especially  after  a  rain.  If 
these  wheel  tracks  are  allowed  to  remain,  when  it  rains 
water  will  stand  in  them  and  soften  the  road  bed.  Then 
as  wagons  pass  over  them  they  are  made  much  deeper. 
The  road  drag  is  the  simplest  way  of  filling  these  ruts. 
It  is  cheaply  constructed,  and  one  man  and  two  or  three 
horses  can  handle  it. 

When  to  Use  a  Road  Drag. — You  have  no  doubt 
heard  of  "puddling  soil" — working  it  Avhen  it  is  wet. 
Farmers  sometimes  make  reservoirs  for  water  in  clay 
soil  by  excavating  a  hole,  wetting  the  soil  in  the  bot- 
tom and  tamping  it  or  leading  horses  or  cattle  about 
in  the  muddy  bottom.  This  puddling  makes  the  soil 
hold  water.  Since  we  want  the  surface  of  the  road  to 
be  impervious  to  water,  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  puddled. 
This  can  best  be  done  by  dragging  it  soon  after  a  rain, 
when  it  is  still  wet.  If  a  puddled  surface  will  hold 
water,  as  in  the  case  of  reservoirs,  it  will  also  shed  water 
when  rounded  and  smoothed,  as  on  a  dragged  road. 
There  are  also  other  reasons  for  dragging  at  such  a 
time.    The  surface  of  the  road  is  soft  and  the  ridges  are 


322  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

more  easily  cut  off  and  pushed  to  the  center.  Men  and 
teams  can  not  work  to  good  advantage  in  the  fields,  and 
the  road  dries  more  quickly.  When  all  main  traveled 
dirt  roads  are  dragged  soon  after  every  heavy  rain,  roads 
will  be  very  much  better  than  they  are  now,  and  the 
cost  of  this  work  is  so  slight  that  any  well  settled  farm- 
ing community  can  afford  to  do  it,  or  each  farmer  can 
well  afford  to  drag  the  road  along  his  property. 

If  a  hole  is  to  be  filled  in  a  road,  material  similar 
to  the  road  should  be  used,  i.  e.,  it  is  not  wise  to  fill  a 


Fig-,  122. — Same  road  shown  in  Fig.   121,  after  dragging  twice. 

hole  in  a  clay  road  with  sand  or  a  hole  in  a  sandy 
road  with  clay,  as  they  do  not  wear  uniformly  and  con- 
seouently  make  the  road  rough. 

Sandy  Roads  are  best  maintained  by  keeping  them 
covered  with  straw  or  other  vegetable  matter,  as  this 
helps  to  hold  moisture,  and  sandy  roads  are  firmer  when 
moist  than  when  dry.  The  Minnesota  State  Highway 
Commission  suggests  that  the  road  supervisors  in  sandy 
sections  sow  some  strong  growing  crop  in  the  right  of 
wai^,  to  cut  and  throw  in  the  road. 

Questions: 

1.  Describe  a  King  split  log  drag. 

2.  For  Avhat  reasons  do  dirt  roads  need  dragging? 


MAINTENANCE  OF  ROADS.  323 

3.  What  is  accomplished  by  dragging  a  road  when 
it  is  still  a  little  wet? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  in  two  timbers  3  in. 
thick,  10  in.  wide  and  8  ft.  Ions:?  What  is  it  worth  at 
$30.00  per  M.  feet? 

2.  What  will  a  strip  of  mild  isteel  %  in.  thick,  2^/^ 
in.  wide  and  16  ft.  long,  weighing  3  lbs.  per  ft.,  cost  at 
3c  per  pound? 

3.  A  boy  can  make  a  road  drag  with  the  above 
materials  in  5  hours.  His  time  is  worth  10c  per  hour. 
What  is  the  cost  of  the  drag,  including  timber,  steel 
and  labor? 

4.  A  boy  with  three  horses  can  drag  a  mile  of  road 
in  1  hour.  How  much  will  it  cost  if  the  boy's  time  is 
worth  10c.  per  hour  and  each  horse's  time  is  worth  8c, 
per  hour?  How  much  will  it  cost  if  he  drags  the  mile  of 
road  5  times  during  the  year?     If  he  drags  it  10  times? 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

CO-OPERATION. 

Meaning  of  Co-operation. — Every  farm  girl  and  boy 
should  know  the  meaning  of  the  term  co-operation  and 
realize  its  full  significance.  Co-operation  means  united 
effort  or,  as  Prof.  J.  A.  Vye  has  put  it,  "Union  of  the 
powers  of  the  common  people  for  the  common  good." 
The  very  best  example  we  have  of  true  and  ideal  co- 
operation is  in  the  family.  Here  each  member  works  for 
the  common  good,  makes  sacrifices  for  the  rest,  and  shares 


in  the  joys  and  successes  of  the  other  members.  In  our 
business  relations  with  neighbors  and  friends  we  can- 
not expect  such  complete  co-operation.  But  under  pres- 
ent conditions  of  business,  it  is  possible  for  people  to 
co-operate  or  work  together  to  their  mutual  advantage, 
even  if  they  are  prompted  only  by  advantage  to  them- 
selves and  are  without  the  generous  desire  to  help  others. 
There  is  perhaps  no  other  class  of  people  that  co- 
operate as  little  as  do  farmers,  and  likewise  there  is 
probably  no  class  who  can  be  benefited  more  by  co- 
operation. 


CO-OPERATION.  325 

Obstacles  to  Co-operation. — One  of  the  great  obstacles 
to  co-operation  among  farmers  is  the  old  notion,  retained 
by  many,  that  a  farmer  is  the  most  independent  man 
on  earth.  It  is  true  that  the  farmer  is  independent  in 
some  ways.  He  is  his  own  employer,  may  go  to  work 
an  hour  late  or  quit  an  hour  early  occasionally  without 
asking  anyone's  permission.  On  the  other  hand  he  is 
dependent  on  other  people  to  buy  his  products:  and, 
to  get  his  supplies,  he  is  dependent  on  manufacturers, 
transportation  companies  and  merchants. 

Need  of  Co-operation. — It  is  a  safe  conclusion  that 
in  the  majority  of  cases  the  weaker  of  two  persons 
making  a  trade  comes  out  second  best.  The  farmer  in 
selling  his  products  and  in  buying  his  supplies  usually 
deals  with  large  concerns,  consequently  he  very  often 
gets  the  worst  of  the  bargain.  This  is  but  natural,  for 
the  business  of  the  average  farmer  amounts  to  but  very 
little  to  the  buyer  of  stock  or  grain,  and  while  the  sale 
may  mean  a  great  deal  to  the  farmer,  it  means  very 
little  to  the  buyer.  Likewise  a  dealer  selling  machinery, 
lumber  or  other  supplies  does  not  care  a  great  deal  about 
the  business  of  one  farmer,  but  the  farmer  is  often  un- 
der the  necessity  of  buying  of  that  particular  dealer.  In 
the  above  mentioned  cases  it  is  quite  evident  that  the 
farmer  is  at  a  disadvantage. 

Advantages  of  Co-operation.— If,  however,  several 
farmers  go  together  and  offer  for  sale  a  large  amount 
of  grain,  stock,  or  other  products,  there  is  business 
enough  represented  in  handling  this  product  to  attract 
several  buyers,  and  as  a  consequence  a  better  price  is 
obtained.  Likewise,  if  a  number  of  farmers  find  that 
they  need  among  them  several  machines  of  different 
kinds  (probably  a  few  thousand  dollars  worth)  and  they 
go  to  a  dealer  to  buy,  he  is  anxious  to  get  the  large 
order  and  will  make  some  reduction  in  price  in  order 
to  get  it.  Such  combination  of  interests  tends  to  equalize 
the  strength  on  the  two  sides  of  the  bargain;  and,  as  a 
consequence,  to  equalize,  the  benefits  of  the  trade. 


326 


AGRICULTURE    FOR   YOUNG   FOLKS. 


Co-operative  Production. — Not  only  can  farmers  get 
better  prices  for  the  same  product  by  selling  in  large 
quantities,  but  they  can  also  produce,  by  working  to- 
gether, products  that  are  worth  much  more.  For  ex- 
ample, if  several  farmers  are  raising  horses  they  can 
get  better  prices  for  them  if  they  all  raise  horses  of  the 
same  type  and  breed.  It  is  easier  in  such  a  case  for  a 
Xmrehaser  to  get  a  matched  team,  and  where  several 
horses  can  be  bought  in  one  neighborhood,  a  buyer  can 


■ 

1 

""■■■™' 

^ 

Fig.  123. — A  Farmers'  Co-operative  Elevator,  This  represents  an 
industry  that  in  many  localities  has  saved  farmers  thousands  of 
dollars. 

afford  to  pay  a  better  price  for  them  than  he  could  if 
he  had  to  search  several  neighborhoods,  because  he  is 
saved  the  time  and  expense  of  searching. 

There  are  great  possibilities  for  farmers  to  materially 
benefit  themselves  by  closer  co-operation  in  many  of 
their  farming  and  business  enterprises.  Several  farm- 
era  working  together  greatly  increase  their  own  strength 
and  resources,  and  better  equip  themselves  to  meet  con- 


MARKETING  BUTTER.  327 

ditions   as   they   exist   at   the   present   time.     They   can 
produce  large  quantities  of  superior  and  uniform  prod- 
ucts, and  put  them  on  the  market  in  such  condition  and 
quantity  as  to  assure  top  prices. 
Questions : 

1.  What  do  you  understand  ''co-operation"  to 
mean  ? 

2.  Where  is  the  best  example  of  co-operation  to  be 
found? 

3.  What  is  one  great  obstacle  to  co-operation  among 
farmers  ? 

4.  Why  does  a  farmer  trading  with  a  large  concern 
often  get  the  worst  of  the  bargain? 

5.  Why  are  a  number  of  farmers,  buying  or  sell- 
ing together,  almost  sure  to  get  better  prices? 

6.  Why  can  a  buyer  afford  to  pay  more  when  large 
and  uniform  quantities  of  any  one  thing  can  be  found 
in  a  neighborhood? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  Thirty  farmers  want  $100  worth  of  machinery 
each.  How  many  dollars  worth  of  machinery  do  they 
all  want?  How  much  would  they  save  if  they  could 
get  10  per  cent,  discount?  If  they  could  get  20  per 
cent,  discount? 

2.  A  cattle  buyer,  to  get  a  car  load  of  cattle,  spends 
3  days,  paying  $5.00  per  day  for  livery  and  $2.00  per  day 
for  hotel  accommodations.  His  time  is  worth  $5.00 
per  day.  How  much  does  it  cost  him  in  time  and  ex- 
pense? How  much  does  this  expense  amount  to  per 
head  if  he  buys  18  head? 

3.  If  a  car  of  uniform  cattle,  weighing  24,000  lbs., 
sell  for  50c  per  100  lbs.  more  than  mixed  cattle,  how 
much  more  are  they  worth  than  a  car  of  mixed  cattle  ? 

MARKETING    BUTTER. 

Co-operative  Creamery. — One  of  the  best  examples  of 
co-operation  among  farmers,  in  the  Northwest,  is  the 
co-operative  creamery;  and  the  results  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  encourage  effort  along  other  lines. 


328  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  co-operative  creamery, 
every  farm  manufactured  its  own  butter.  In  most  cases 
poor  facilities  were  at  ha.nd  for  the  work,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence a  product  often  not  first  class,  and  never  uni- 
form, was  produced.  The  result  was  that  butter  sold  at 
a  very  low  price,  often  6c.  to  10c.  per  pound.  Many 
farmers  produced  good  butter,  but  very  few  farms  were 
so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  sell  their  product  in  such 
a  way  as  to  get  a  good  price  for  it.  Few  farms  had  a 
constant  or  uniform  supply  of  butter,  and  this  fact  made 
it  impossible  for  a  merchant  to  work  up  a  trade  for  the 
product  from  a  certain  farm  or  of  a  certain  quality, 
because  he  could  not  be  sure  of  getting  the  butter  for 
any  definite  length  of  time.  This  resulted  in  merchants 
in  the  small  towns  paying  about  the  same  price  for  all 
butter,  mixing  it  all  together  and  selling  it  all  at  a  low 
price.  Consequently  they  could  afford  to  pay  but  a  low 
price  for  it. 

Principles  of  Marketing. — There  are  three  conditions 
which  have  a  tendency  to  increase  the  price  of  a  staple 
product,  and  as  these  conditions  are  well  illustrated  by 
our  creameries  we  mention  them  here. 

1st.  A  large  quantity  of  a  desirable  product  in  one 
place  attracts  several  buyers,  thus  increasing  competi- 
tion and  the  price.  2d.  A  uniformly  good  product 
and  a  constant  supply  enables  a  dealer  to  build  up  a 
demand  for  something  good;  hence  he  can  pay  a  bet- 
ter price  for  it.  3d.  Bringing  the  buyer  to  the  prod- 
uct, instead  of  sending  the  product  to  the  buyer,  tends  to 
increase  the  price,  because  it  enables  the  seller  to  re- 
fuse the  price  offered  and  wait  for  a  better  offer,  which 
he  cannot  always  do  if  he  has  delivered  his  product. 

The  average  co-operative  creamery  produces  from 
$20,000  to  $50,000  worth  of  butter  in  a  year.  This  nat- 
urally attracts  buyers  who  are  anxious  to  handle  the 
large  product.  Creameries  turn  out  a  fairly  uniform 
quality  of  butter,  which  has  been  a  very  strong  factor 
in  increasing  the   demand  and  the   price   for   creamery 


MARKETING  BUTTER. 


329 


butter.  On  account  of  the  large  and  uniform  product, 
buyers  come  or  send  to  the  creamery,  consequently  the 
creamery  manager  can  sell  or  hold  the  product  in  the 
refrigerator  until  he  gets  the  offer  he  considers  fair. 
These  same  principles  hold  true  in  the  marketing  of  any 
farm  product. 

Why  Some  Creameries  FadL — That  a  well  managed 
and  well  patronized  co-operative  creamery  can  compete 
successfully  with  any  other  known  plant,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  butter,  has  been  amply  proved.  Still  there 
are  now  majny  creameries  that  are  being  injured,  and  a 
few    of  them   closed,   by   the   competition   of   the   large 


Fig.  12  1. — A  farmers'  co-operative  creamery  where  a  large  quan- 
tity of  a  uniform  product  is  produced  and  offered  for  sale  in  an 
attractive  and  business-like  manner.  Farmers  of  the  Northwest 
should  be  proud  of  their  success  with  this  form  of  co-operative 
factory. 


privately  owned  creameries  called  "  centralizers. "  These 
''centralizers"  have  their  cream  shipped  from  any  place 
they  can  get  it.  In  order  to  get  cream  where  there  is 
a  local  creamery,  they  may  offer  a  better  price  than  the 
local  creamery  can  pay,  or  they  may  get  cream  at  the 
same  price  from  a  few  of  its  dissatisfied  patrons. 

Losing  any  considerable  amount  of  cream  greatly 
weakens  the  local  plant,  and  it  cannot  pa|y  as  much  for 
butter-fat  as  it  had  been  paying,  because  the  butter 
maker's  salary  and  other  expenses  must  be  paid  out  of 


330  AGRICULTURE    P'OR   YOU^G   FOLKS. 

a  smaller  output.  This  forces  the  local  plant  to  run  at 
a  loss  or  close. 

Stand  by  Local  Creamery. — The  closing  of  the  local 
creamery  would  not  be  so  undesirable  if  the  centralizers 
continued  to  pay  good  prices  for  cream;  but  they  can- 
not as  a  rule  continue  to  pay  as  good  prices  as  can  a  well 
managed  and  well  patronized  co-operative  plant,  because 
they  have  difficulty  in  getting  cream  of  as  good  quality 
as  does  the  co-operative  creamery,  and  consequently  can- 
not make  as  uniformly  good  butter. 

It  generally  happens  that  when  the  local  creamery 
is  closed,  the  centralizer,  being  relieved  of  competition, 
reduces  the  price  paid  for  cream  below  that  paid  by  the 
best  co-operative  plants. 

For  their  own  interests  as  well  as  the  interests  of 
the  community,  it  pays  patrons  of  a  co-operative  cream- 
ery to  stand  by  their  own  plant  and  not  be  lured  away 
by  temporary  high  prices,  or  high  tests,  or  by  jealousy 
and  spite;  for  the  chances  are  that  as  soon  as  the  local 
creamery  h  closed  they  will  get  less  for  butter-fat  than 
their  own  creamery  can  pay  them  if  they  patronize  it. 

Questions : 

1.  "What  was  the  cause  of  the  low  price  formerly 
paid  for  butter? 

2.  Can  you  give  the  three  principles  of  successful 
marketing  ? 

3.  What  is  often  the  reason  of  a  co-operative  cream- 
ery failing? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  a  farmer  keeps  12  cows  and  each  produces  % 
lb.  of  butter-fat  per  day,  how  many  pounds  of  butter- 
fat  will  he  get  per  week?  How  many  pounds  of  25% 
creaim  will  he  get  per  week?  (1  lb.  of  butter-fat  will 
make  4  pounds  of  25%  cream.) 

2.  How  much  should  a  farmer  receive  if  he  sells  168 
pounds  of  25%  cream  at  30c.  per  pound  for  butter-fat? 

3.  How  much  less  would  he  receive  per  week  for 
his  168  pounds  of  cream  if  he  were  paid  but  27c.  per 


MARKETING    EGGS. 


331 


pound  for  butter-fat?     If  he  lost  $1.26  per  week,  how 
much  would  he  lose  in  1  year? 

4.  How  much  less  would  he  receive  if  he  were  paid 
30c.  per  pound,  but  his  168  pounds  of  cream  tested  but 
22%  butter-fat?  If  he  lost  $1.51  per  week,  how  much 
would  he  lose  per  year  ? 


MARKETING    EGGS. 

Fresh  Eggs  Scarce  in  Cities. — It  is  no  easy  matter 
for  people  in  town  to  secure  good,  fresh  eggs  whenever 
they  want  them.  There  are  thousands  of  people  in  every 
large  city  who  are  willing  to  pay  good,  and  even  fancy 
prices,  for  egsrs,  if  they  can  be  sure  of  getting  a  strictly 
firstr-classi  article. 

How  Eggs  are  Marketed. — The  common  way  of  hand- 
ling  eggs  is   about   as  follows:     Eggs   are   gathered  at 

irregular  intervals,  then 
about  once  a  week  they 
are  taken  to  town  and 
sold  or  traded  to  a  groc- 
er, who  pays  one  price 
for  all  kinds  of  eggs — 
white,  brown,  small, 
large,  dirty  or  clean — 
and  mixes  them  all  to- 
gether. Some  of  these 
eggs  are  one  day  old 
and  some  are  two  weeks 
or  more  old.  The  mer- 
chant sets  them  in  his 
store  room  with  ill- 
smelling  materials,  as  meats,  oils,  etc.,  and  some 
of  these  odors  are  absorbed  by  the  eggs.  This  mixed 
case,  with  other  similar  cases,  is  then  sent  to  a  com- 
mission merchant,  who  may  sell  them  to  a  city  grocer 
at  once  or  store  them.  After  more  or  less  delay  these 
eggs  are  offered  for  sale  to  city  people.  They  are  often 
of  questionable  quality,  and  it  is  little  wonder  that  the 
particular  housekeeper  hesitates  to  buy  them. 


Fig.  120. — A  Carton  of  Eggs.  A 
neat,  attractive  and  convenient 
way  to  handle  eggs. 


332  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

One  Man's  Experience. — A  poultry  man  living  near 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  sells  all  his  eggs  to  a  certain  grocer. 
The  eggs  are  gathered  every  day  and  the  date  stamped 
on  each  egg.  Eggs  of  uniform  size  and  color  are  put 
in  small  cartons  or  paper  cases,  holding  one  dozen  each. 
The  cartons  are  sealed  with  a  label  on  v^hich  is  printed 
a  statement  that  the  eggs  are  guaranteed  to  be  strictly 
fresh,  and  if  any  bad  eggs  are  found  the  producer  will 
replace  them  with  good  eggs.  These  eggs  are  market- 
ed every  day,  and  sell  readily  at  35c.  per  dozen,  when 
eggs  marketed  in  the  ordinary  way  are  selling  at  18  to 
20  cents  per  dozen. 

The  Farmer's  Problem. — Merchants  who  buy,  handle 
and  sell  eggs  are  not  to  blame  for  the  low  price.  It 
is  the  lack  of  uniformity,  the  unattractive  appear- 
ance, and  the  suspicion  that  the  eggs  may  not  be  fresh, 
that  causes  the  low  price.  The  farmer  with  a  small 
flock  of  chickens  can  do  very  little  to  improve  his  mar- 
kets alone,  as  he  does  not  produce  enough  eggs  to  en- 
able him  to  interest  a  grocer  or  to  work  up  a  special 
trade.  The  problem,  like  that  of  the  creamery,  seems 
to  require  co-operation. 

The  Barnum  Plan. — At  Barnum,  Minn.,  eggs  are  mar- 
keted through  the  local  creamery.  Each  patron  having 
eggs  to  sell  is  supplied  with  a  rubber  stamp,  with  which 
he  stamps  on  each  egg  the  name  of  the  Barnum  Cream- 
ery and  his  own  number,  so  that  in  case  the  eggs  are 
not  good  they  can  be  traced  back  to  the  right  farm. 
Each  patron  is  given  as  many  cartons  as  he  can  handle, 
and  he  delivers  his  eggs  to  the  creamery  when  he  does 
his  cream.  Any  one  selling  eggs  through  this  creamery 
must  gather  them  every  day,  keep  them  in  a  cool,  clean 
place,  deliver  no  dirty  eggs  or  eggs  more  than  a  week 
old.  In  this  way  the  creamery  company  can  guarantee 
the  eggs  to  be  fresh,  clean  and  attractive.  They  have 
been  shipping  eggs  in  this  way  for  a  year  or  more,  di- 
rect to  high-class  grocers  in  Duluth,  who  are  glad  to 
handle  a  high-class  article.  They  have  been  able  to 
pay  their  patrons  from  four  to  ten  cents  per  dozen  more 


MARKETING    EGGS.  333 

than  farmers  are  getting  where  eggs  are  marketed  in 
the  old  way. 

Suggestions* — ^A  co-operative  creamery  is  an  excel- 
lent center  at  which  to  deliver  eggs,  where  several  farm- 
ers are  interested. 

The  young  people  in  a  community  can  get  some  very 
valuable  experience,  and  make  considerable  money,  by 
taking  the  matter  up  and  marketing  eggs  as  is  done 
through  the  Barnum  Creamery. 

When  a  hen  lays  an  egg  in  a  clean  nest  it  is  a  clean 
egg.  The  next  hen  coming  to  the  nest  to  lay  may  get 
the  first  egg  dirty.  Gather  eggs  often  to  avoid  this 
difficulty. 


THIS  PACKAGE  CONTAINS 


One  Dozen  Guaranteed  Fresh  Eggs 

BARNUM  CREAMERY  CO. 

Manufacturers  and  Dealers 

Eggs,  Butter,  Pasteurized  Cream  and  Ice  Cream 

BARNUM,  MINNESOTA 

NOTE — Eggs  in  this  package,  if  they  have  our  trade  mark  on  them,  are  guaranteed 
to  be  strictly  fresh,  clean  and  full  size,  and  if  ever  found  otherwise,  we  wish  you 
would  do  us  the  favor  to  report  it,  giving  number  found  on  the  egg. 

BARNUM   CREAMERY  CO. 


Fig.   126. — The   guarantee  placed  on  each  carton  of  eggs  sold  by  the 
Barnum   Creamery   Co. 

Grade  eggsi  by  size  and  color,  and  put  in  neat,  clean 
cartons.  Ship  in  good,  strong  cases  direct  to  some  good 
merchant  in  the  nearest  large  city.  Get  enough  people 
interested,  so  several  cases  can  be  shipped  each  time,  and 
ship  at  least  twice  a  week. 

Get  all  producers  interested  in  some  one  good  breed 
of  chickens.  Then  eggs  will  be  uniform  and  look  more 
attractive. 

Questions : 

1.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  usual  method 
of  marketing  eggs? 


334  AGRICULTURE  FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS. 

2.  Why  is  the  Barnum  plan,  suggested  above,  better 
than  the  old  method? 

3.  In  what  way  may  the  people  of  a  community 
market  their  eggs  to  get  better  results  than  by  selling 
them  to  the  local  grocer? 

Arithmetic : 

1.  If  each  farm  produces  30  eggs  per  day,  how  many 
farms  would  be  required  to  produce  enough  eggs  each 
day  to  fill  a  30  doz.  case  ? 

2.  How  many  farms,  producing  30  eggs  each  per 
day,  would  be  required  to  produce  enough  eggs,  so  that 
five  cases,  holding  30  doz.  each,  could  be  shipped  three 
times  a  week  ? 

3.  If  each  farm  produces  30  eggs  per  day,  what  would 
be  the  gain  per  day  on  each  farm  if  5c.  extra  per  doz. 
could  be  secured?  If  the  extra  trouble  in  keeping  the 
eggs  clean  and  neatly  packing  them  takes  15  minutes 
each  day,  what  rate  per  hour  would  a  boy  make  for  do- 
ing this  work  ? 


INDEX 


Accounts,  garden,  285;  livestock, 
160;  with  a  cow,  163;  dairy- 
product,  166;  farm,  157 

Acreage,  148 

Aerate  soil,  92 

Air,  effect  of  insufficient,  278; 
for  seed  germination,  20;  for 
seeds,  13;  movement  for  ven- 
tilation, 281;  plant  food  in, 
7;  pressure,  279 

Annual  weeds,  52;  eradication  of, 
58 

Apples,  adaptability,  303;  culti- 
vation of,  305;  mulching,  305; 
preparation  of  soil,  304;  pre- 
serving, 307;  pruning,  306; 
setting,  305;  soil  for,  303; 
trees,     304;     varieties,     303; 

Appropriations  for  roads,  316 

Babcock  test  for  milk,  185 
Bacteria,  explained,  273,  in  clover 

roots,  126;  in  home,  273,  276; 

multiplication  of,  308 
Barley,  23 
Barnum  plan  for  marketing  eggs, 

331 
Breeds,  poultry,  247 
Biennial    weeds,    61;    eradication 

of,  62 
Bromus,  70 
Bookkeeping,  157 
Buildings,  for  live  stock,  182- 
Bull  thistle,  61 
Burdock,  61 
Butter,  making,  166 

Canada  thistle,  66 
Canning,  fruit,  309 
Carbohydrates,  196 
Carbon  dioxide,  7 


Check  rows,  95 

Chickens,  (see  poultry) 

Chicks,  249 

Cholera,  hog;  233;  preventive 
measures,  234 

Chores,  179 

Cleanliness,  in  poultry  houses,  253 

Climatic  conditions,  effect  of,  on 
corn,  77 

Clover,  a  clover  catch,  125;  adds 
nitrogen  to  soil,  128;  Alsike, 
124;  for  rotation,  154;  mam- 
moth, 123;  medium  red,  123; 
roots  and  bacteria,  126,  127; 
sod,  116;  white,  125 

Cock  covers,  131 

Cockle,  44 

Co-operation,  advantages,  234; 
co-operative  creamery,  326; 
co-operative  production,  325; 
in  marketing,  169;  meaning 
of,  323;  need  of,  324;  ob- 
stacles, 324;  reduction  of 
cost  by,  169;  with  creamery, 
170 

Contest,  judging,  37;  plan  of,  35; 
plowing,  35;  prizes,  36 

Conveniences,  184 

Corn,  aerate  soil,  92;  cultivation 
of,  90,  93,  94;  culture,  87; 
effect  of  climatic  conditions 
on,  77;  food  material  from, 
83;  for  rotation,  156;  grade 
seed,  87;  crop,  76,  153; 
growth,  84;  kernels  of,  79, 
80,  82,  100;  planting,  89,  95; 
seed,  81,  82;  selection  of,  96, 
97,  101,  103;  shapes,  78,  99; 
storing  seed,  101,  102,  104, 
105;  testing,  8,  41,  85;  varie- 
ties, 97,  98;  weeds  among,  91; 
yield,  76 


336 


INDEX. 


Cows,  account  with,  163;  culling, 
188;  expense  and  profits  of, 
165;  feed  requirements,  164, 
200;  maintenance,  200;  nu- 
trients required,  201;  possibil- 
ities of  the  dairy  cow,  192; 
succulent  food  for  dairy,  208; 
testing,  188;  water  for,  181; 
yields,  193 

Culling,  188 

Cultivation,  118;  apples,  305; 
blind,  118;  corn,  90,  93,  94; 
crops  that  require,  139;  depth 
of,  93;  for  currants,  301; 
for  potatoes,  118;  for  rasp- 
berries, 299;  for  strawberries, 
296;  to  add  moisture  to  the 
soil,  20 

Cultivators,  corn,  94;  surface,  94 

Curing  hay,  130;  time  to  cut,  131; 
weather  for,  129 

Currants,  cultivation,  propaga- 
tion, pruning,  301;  setting, 
soil  varieties  for,  winter  pro- 
tection, 301 

Cream,  168 

Creamery,  co-operative,  326;  mar- 
keting, 327;  why  some  fail, 
328 

Creep,  A,  239 

Crops,  classification  of  field,  137; 
cultivated,  139,  145;  grain, 
137;  grass,  139 


Dairying,  marketing  dairy  prod- 
ucts, 166;  possibilities  of,  194 
Dead  furrows,  34 

Decomposition,  vegetable  matter, 

12,  142 
Drills,  95 
Dock,  curled,  65 
Dragging    roads,    320 
Drags,  320 


Drainage,  roads,  318;  about  the 

home,  272 
Drying  corn,  103 


Eggs,  cooking,  259,  260;  expe- 
riences, 331;  food  value  of, 
258;  how  to  market,  330;  in 
winter,  261;  scarcity,  330; 
suggestions,  332;  the  Barnum 
plan,  331;  their  uses,  257 

Embryo,  82 

Ensilage,  rations  containing,  211 

Enterprises,  158 

Ewes,  230;  breeding,  229 

Exercise,  for  livestock,  181;  hens 
262 

Experiment,  in  planting  seed  at 
different  depths,  24 


Fallow,  bare,  73 

Farm  accounts,  157;  bookkeeping, 
157;  cost  reduction,  169; 
dairy  products,  166-168;  en- 
terprises, 158;  farmer  as  a 
merchant,  159;  land  rent, 
159;  livestock,  160-163;  the 
cow,    163-165 

Farms,  acreage  and  yields,  148; 
arrangement  of  fields,  149; 
farmstead,  147;  fencing,  148- 
150;  fields  for  rotation,  149; 
planning,  146,  152;  shape  of 
fields,  147;  selection,  146; 
waste  land,  148;  worn  out, 
143 

Farm  home,  bacteria  in,  273; 
chickens  for,  273;  cleanliness 
in,  276;  drainage,  272;  facili- 
ties for,  267;  flies,  273;  lawns, 
.268;  neatness,  267;  planning, 
271;  sanitation  in,  272;  shade 
trees,  269;  surroundings,  267; 
ventilation,  278;  windbreaks, 
270 


INDEX. 


337 


Farm  management,  133 
Farmstead,  the,  147 
Fat,  196 

Feed,  classes  of  97;  comparison 
of,  199;  composition  of,  197 
and  210;  compound  ration  for, 
203;  proportion  of  grain  and 
roughage,  203;  for  dairy 
cows,  200;  for  Hvestock,  162; 
roughage,  200;  maintenance, 
200;  nutrients  required  in, 
201;  for  sheep,  228,  229 

Feeding  animals,  food  require- 
ments, 195;  horses,  216-223; 
pigs,  239;  poultry,  260;  ra- 
tions, 195,  203,  205;  roots, 
209;  sheep,  228;  succulent 
food  for  dairy  cows,  208 

Feeding  stuffs,  217,  242 

Fencing,  148-150;  building,  175; 
cement  posts,  173;  corner 
posts,  175;  cost  of,  177; 
economy  in,  150;  for  pigs, 
240;  for  sheep,  228;  good 
workmanship  in,  175;  in- 
vestments in,  174;  kind  of 
posts,  172;  setting  posts,  176; 
stretching,  176;  wire,  176 

Field  crops,  classification  of,  137 

Fields,  arrangement  of,  149;  dis- 
tance from  farmstead, 
fencing,  150;  for  rotation, 
shape,  size,   149 

Flies,  273 

Flues,  282 

Food  material  from  corn,  83 

Fruit,  advantages,  291;  apples, 
303;  conditions  of,  308;  diet- 
aries, 290;  gooseberries,  302; 
in  diet,  289;  need  of,  290; 
preparation  for,  308;  pre- 
serving, 307;  raspberries,  297; 
strawberries,  292;  succulent 
food,  289;  supply  of,  291 


Garden,  account,  285;  arrange- 
ment of,  287;  income  from, 
284;  value  of,  283;  location  of, 
286;  plan  of,  286;  preparation 
for,  286;  size  of,  286;  soil  for, 
286 

Germination,  43;  air  and  heat  for, 
20;  moisture  for,  20;  why 
seeds  fail,  14 

Germs,  seed,  100 

Gooseberries,  302 

Grading,  seed  grain,  42 

Grafting  apple  trees,  304 

Grape  juice,  310 

Grain  crops,  137;  for  rotation,  154 

Grass  crops,  139 


Hay,  a  cleaning  crop,  46;  cock 
covers  for,  131;  clover,  123; 
crop  advantages,  cost,  120; 
curing,  129,  130;  damage  to 
by  hot  sun,  131;  time  to 
cut,  129 

Headland,  33 

Healthfulness  in  farm  homes, 
272,  275 

Heat,  13;  for  seed  germination,  20 

Hogging  crops,  244 

Horse,  change  of  feed  for,  222; 
corn  and  clover  ration,  224; 
cost  of  labor,  214;  distribu- 
tion of  horse  labor,  215; 
feeding,  216;  feeding  and 
maintaining  idle,  223;  labor, 
5;  raising,  215;  rations  for, 
221;  requirements  of,  220 

Hydrogen,  7 


Interests  on  investment,  in  cow, 

164;  in  farm,  161 
Investemnts,  161;  depreciation  of, 

159 
Insects  destroyed  by  plowing,  27 


338 


INDEX. 


Kernels,  comparison  of,  80;  exami- 
nation of,  82;  shapes  of,  78 
Kinghead,  44 

Labor,  cost  of,  214;  horse,  214 

Lands,  plowing  in,  33;  rent  of,  159 

Lawns,  268 

Lice,  262 

Light,  for  livestock,  183 

Livestock,  accounts,  160;  care  of, 
chores,  value  of  time,  179, 
180;  comfort  of,  181;  con- 
veniences for,  cost,  184;  de- 
preciation of,  160;  exercise 
for,  181;  interest  on  invest- 
ments in,  161;  light,  ventila- 
tion for,  183;  shelter,  182; 
water  for,  181 

Manure,  to  smother  weeds,  72 

Marketing  butter,  326;  co-opera- 
tion in,  169;  principles  of, 
327;  why  some  creameries 
fail,  328;  dairy  products,  166; 
eggs,  330;  explained,  330,  331 

Meadow  for  rotation,    155 

Milk,  advantages  of  weighing,  190; 
Babcock  test,  185;  milk  test 
explained,  187;  principle  of 
the  test,  186;  sampling,  191 
selling,  168;  testing,  185-191 
weighing,  189;  whole,  168 
work  for  boys,  191 

Milking,  180 

Mites,  262 

Moisture,  for  seeds,  13;  for  seed 
germination,  20;  in  corn,  90 

Molds,  308 

Morning  glory,  66 

Muhlenbergia,  70 

Mulching,  apples,  305;  surface,  90 

Mustard,  52;  seeds,  47 

Neatness  of  farm  homes,  267 
Neglect,  in  selecting  seed,  96 
Nests,  256 
Nutrients,  201 


Oats  for  rotation,  153 
Oxygen,  7 

Pasture,  for  pigs,  240;  in  rotation, 

156 
Pectin,  308 

Perennial  weeds,  64,  71 
Pigeon  grass,  52;  seeds,  47 
Pigweed,  49 

Plans,  for  poultry  house,  254 
Plant  food,  7;  available,  15,  140; 
air,  heat,  and  moisture  in,  13, 
141;  in  air,  7,  141;  in  soil,  8; 
made  soluble,  10,  141;  sources 
of,  7;  insoluble,  140;  vegetable 
matter  in,  12,  141 
Planting,  corn,  89;  potatoes,  116; 

seed  bed,  22 
Plow,  the,  32;  conditions  of,  33 
Plowing,  art  of,  31;  condition  of 
soil,  28;  contests  in,  35,  36; 
fall  feed,  30;     team  for,  32; 
the   field,    33;   time   for,    28, 
30;    to    destroy   insects,    27; 
to  judge,  37;  objects  of,  26 
Posts,    cement,  173;  corner,  175; 

fence,  172 
Potato,  crop,  107,  153;  cost,  107; 
in  rotation,  153;  planting, 
116-118;  preparation  for  crop, 
114-116;  result  of  cooking, 
111-113;  scab,  115;  seed,  114, 
116;  soil,  109;  undesirable 
features,  108;  varieties,  110 
Pork  production,  232 
Poultry,  a  start  with,  247;  breeds, 
247;  care,  248;  cleanliness, 
253;  general  principles,  251; 
houses,  251;  importance  of, 
246;  light,  252,  on  the  farm, 
246;  records  of,  246;  setting 
hens,  248;  size,  252,  ventila- 
tion, 253;  warmth,  253;  win- 
ter hens,  250;  young  chicks, 
249 
Eggs,  their  uses,  257;  value  for 
cooking  258-259 


INDEX. 


339 


Winter  hens,  eggs  in  winter, 
261;  exercise,  262;  feeding 
laying  hens,  260,  265;  mites, 
262;  no  rules,  261;  small 
things,   263,;  too  fat,   262 

Preserving  fruit,  307;  canning, 
309;  molds  and  bacteria,  308; 
preparation,  308 

Propagation,  currants,  301;  goose- 
berries, 302;  raspberries,  298 

Protein,  196 

Pruning,  apples,  306;  currants, 
301;  gooseberries,  302;  rasp- 
berries, 299 


Quack  grass,  67 


Ragweed,  44 

Raspberries,  adaptability,  297; 
cultivation,  299;  prepara- 
tion, propagating,  298  prun- 
ing, 299;  setting,  298;  soil, 
297;  varieties,  297;  winter 
protection,  300 

Rations,  containing  ensilage, 
211;  containing  succulent 
food,  210;  feeding,  205;  figur- 
ing, 206,  221;  for  breeding 
ewes,  230;  for  laying  hens, 
264;  good,  207;  how  to  feed, 
231;  poor,  206;  to  compound, 
203 

Records,  poultry,  246 

Rent,  159 

Roads,  appearance,  313;  appro- 
priations, 316;  cash  tax,  314; 
construction,  317;  cost,  312; 
dragging,  321;  drags,  320; 
drainage,  318;  dirt,  318; 
importance  of,  311;  main- 
tenance of,  320;  object  of, 
317;  poll-tax,  314;  use,  312; 
repairing,  320;  routes,  313; 
sand,  322;  stone,  317;  sys- 
tems for,  314;  turnpike,  318 


Roosts,  255 

Roots,  203,  209;  clover,  126,  127; 
corn,  93 

Root  stalks,  67 

Rotation,  application  of,  152;  ef- 
fect on  soil,  136;  fields  for, 
149;  five  year,  154,  155; 
maintains  vegetable  matter, 
143;  of  crops,  135;  pasture 
and  corn,  156;  a  practical,  152; 
rearrangement  for,  154;  sys- 
tematic, 135;  various,  153, 
154. 

Roughage,  200;  for  food,  217 

Rye  grass,  69 


Sanitation,  of  home,  272,  275 

Scab,  potato,  115 

Seed  corn,  selection,  98;  to 
remove  weed  from,  41 

Seeds,  depth  to  plant,  23;  ex- 
periments with,  24;  farm, 
38;  favorable  and  unfavora- 
ble conditions  for,  15;  ger- 
minating, 14,  120;  observa- 
tions of,  17;  parts  of  38; 
planting,  22;  potato,  110, 
114;  poor,  41;  requirements, 
13;  seed  bed,  16,  19,  21; 
selection  of,  39,  41;  tests, 
38;  what  they  contain,  13; 
soil  for,  18;  yields  of,  19 

Shade  trees,  269 

Sheep,  breeding,  229,  230;  fenc- 
ing and  feeding,  228,  231; 
little  labor  required,  227; 
living  on  waste  products,  226; 
management,  229;  place  on 
the  farm,  226;  shelter,  227; 
winter  care,  227 

Shelter,  for  livestock,  182;  cost 
of,  184;  kind  of,  182;  for 
sheep,  227;  for  swine,  236 


340 


INDEX. 


Soil,  aerate,  92;  for  apples,  303; 
clover  adds  nitrogen  to,  128; 
condition  of,  18,  28;  effect  of 
potatoes  on,  109;  effect  of 
rotation  on,  136;  light,  sandy, 
18;  mellow,  26;  moisture  in, 
9;  plant  food  in,  8;  prepara- 
tion of,  116;  for  raspberries, 
297;  for  strawberries,  293; 
varieties,  for  currants,  301 

Sow,  the  brood,  235;  care,  236; 
feeding,  236,  237;  shelter 
for,  236 

Growing  pigs,  a  creep  for,  239; 
care  of,  238;  clean  feed,  for, 
239;  fencing  for,  240;  moth- 
er's milk,  238;  pasture  for, 
240;  requirements  of,  238; 
summer  feed  for,  239;  wean- 
ing, 240 

Hogs,  arrangement  of  fields, 
comfort  of,  244;  corn  for, 
243;  early  fall  feed  for,  242; 
fattening  economically,  241; 
field  peas  for,  242;  labor, 
242;  waste  by  hogging  crops, 
243 

Sow  thistle,  66 

Split,  log  drag,  318,  320 

Spraying,  weed,  53;  machines,  53 

Starch,  7 

Storing  seed  corn,  104 

Strawberries,  adaptability,  292; 
cultivation,  296;  planting, 
295;  plants,  294;  preparation 
for,  293;  setting,  295;  soil 
for,  293;  varieties  of,  292 

Succulent  food,  for  dairy  cows, 
208;  rations  containing,  210 

Sweet  vernal,  69 

Swine,  advantages  of,  232;  cholera 
among,  233;  disadvantages 
of,  233;  pork  production,  232 

Syrup,  for  canning,  309 


Tar  paper,  for  killing  weeds,  71 
Taxes,  cash,  314;  poll,  314 
Team  for  plowing,  32 
Testing,  corn,  85;  cows,  188;  good 

seed,    38;    milk,     185,     197; 

principles  of,  186;  seed  corn 

for  germination,  84 
Thistles,  compared,  62 
Tillage,  26;  reason  for,  16 


Varieties  of  apples,  303;  of  corn, 
97;  of  soil,  301;  of  weeds,  51 

Vegetable  matter,  decomposition 
of,  12,  142 

Ventilation,  expansion,  280;  for 
live  stock,  183;  for  poultry 
house,  253;  flues,  for  282; 
movement  of,  281;  object  of, 
282;  physics  of,  280;  sim- 
pHcity,  280;  supply  of  282 

Vetch,  45 


Warmth,  for  poultry,  253;  for  seed 
germination,  20;  for  live- 
stock, 181 

Waste  land,  148 

Weaning,  pigs,  240 

Weed  seeds,  41,  43,  44,  46,  47 

Weeds,  annual,  52-55;  biennial, 
61;  classes  of  51;  losses  caused 
by,  43;  perennial,  64,  67; 
specimens  of,  50;  spraying,  53; 
eradication  of,  49,  58,  62,  71. 
73 

Weighing  milk,  189 

Wild  oats,  wild  barley,  wild 
buckwheat,  55 

Windbreaks,  kinds,  270;  value,  270 


Yeast,  307 

Yields,   148,   191;  increased  cow, 
193;   of  corn,   76 


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Cottage  Houses.     S.  B.  Reed  1.00 

Homes  for  Home  Builders.    D.  W.  Wing 1.00 

A.  B.  C.  and  X.  Y.  Z.  of  Bee  Culture.     A.  L  Root 1.50 

Mysteries  of  Bee  Keeping  Explained.     L.  C.  Root 1.00 

Veterinary  Elements.     Arthur  G.  Hopkins 1.50r 

Diseases  of  Horses  and  Cattle.     D.  Mcintosh 1.75 

Feeds  and  Feeding.    W.  A.  Henry 2.00 

Diseases  of  Swine.     D.  Mcintosh    POO 

Swine  In   America.     F.  D.  Coburn,  net 2.50 

Farm  Live  Stock  of  Great  Britain.     R.  Wallace,  net 5.00 

Profitable  Dairying.     C.   L.   Peck 75 

Judging  Live  Stock.     John  A.  Craig,  net 1.50 

Creamery  Accounting.     J.  A.  Vye,  net 1.00 

Cattle    Breeding.     William   Warfield 2.00 

Practical   Forestry.    A.  S,  Fuller 1.50 

Beautifying   Country    Homes.     J.   Weidermann 10.00 

Garden   Making.     L.  H.  Bailey 1.00 

Practical   Floriculture.     Peter  Henderson 1.50 

Spraying    Crops.     C.    M.    Weed 50 

Spraying  of  Plants.     E.  J.  Lodeman,  net 1.50 

Agriculture  with  Some  of  Its  Relations  with  Chemistry.     F. 

H.  Storer  (3  volumes),  net 5.00 

Pruning  Book.     L.  H.  Bailey,  net   1.50 

Field  Notes  on  Apple  Culture.     L.  H.  Bailey,  net 2.00 

The  Potato.     J.  J.  H.  Gregory 30 

Gardening  for  Profit.     Peter  Henderson 1.50 

The  Soil.    Franklin  H.  King  1.00 

Principles  of  Agriculture.     L.  H.  Bailey,  net 1.50 

Physics  of  Agriculture.     F.  H.  King,  net 1.75 

How  To  Make  a  Garden   Pay.     T.  Greiner 1.00 

Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo.     Thomas  Shaw 1.50 

Forage  and  Fibre  Crops  in  America.     Thomas  Hunt 1.75 

Fertility  of  the  Land.     I.  P.  Roberts,  net 1.50 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors.     J.  B.  Davidson  and  L. 

W.  Chase,  net 2.00 

Manual  of  Corn  Judging.     A.  D.  Shamel 50 

Cereals  in  America.     T.  F.  Hunt 1.75 

Alfalfa,  Book  of.    F.  D.  Coburn 2.00 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 
ST.  PAUL,  MINNESOTA 


YC  59247 


934079 


Wis- 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


